Here I was on the legal fault line between two clashing civilizations mood disorder causes generic 100mg zoloft with mastercard, Turkic and Iranian vertical depression definition buy zoloft 25mg without prescription. Yet the reality was more subtle: As in West Africa anxiety 24 hour helpline order zoloft 100mg online, the border was porous and smuggling abounded mood disorder group long island generic zoloft 25 mg mastercard, but here the people doing the smuggling depression definition symptoms and treatment purchase zoloft 25mg line, on both sides of the border mood disorder homeland generic 50mg zoloft with mastercard, were Kurds. In such a moonscape, over which peoples have migrated and settled in patterns that obliterate borders, the end of the Cold War will bring on a cruel process of natural selection among existing states. No longer will these states be so firmly propped up by the West or the Soviet Union. Because the Kurds overlap with nearly everybody in the Middle East, on account of their being cheated out of a state in the postFirst World War peace treaties, they are emerging, in effect, as the natural selector-the ultimate reality check. They have destabilized Iraq and may continue to disrupt states that do not offer them adequate breathing space, while strengthening states that do. Because the Turks, owing to their water resources, their growing economy and the social cohesion evinced by the most crime free slums I have encountered, are on the verge of big power status, and because the 10 million Kurds within Turkey threaten that status, the outcome of the Turkish-Kurdish dispute will be more critical to the future of the Middle East than the eventual outcome of the recent Israeli-Palestinian agreement. The intense savagery of the fighting in such diverse cultural settings as Liberia, Bosnia, the Caucasus and Sri Lanka-to say nothing of what obtains in American inner cities- indicates something very troubling that those of us concerned with issues such as middleclass entitlements and the future of interactive cable television lack the stomach to contemplate. It is this: A large number of people on this planet, to whom the comfort and stability of a middle-class life are utterly unknown, find war and a barracks existence a step up rather than a step down. Throughout history, for every person who has expressed his horror of war there is another who found in it the most marvellous of all the experiences that are vouch-safed to man, even to the point that he later spent a lifetime boring his descendants by recounting his exploits. Only when people attain a certain economic, educational and cultural standard is this trait tranquillized. Van Creveld writes: In all these struggles political, social, economic and religious motives were hopelessly entangled. Since this was an age when armies consisted of mercenaries, all were also attended by swarms of military entrepreneurs. Many of them paid little but lip service to the organizations for whom they had contracted to fight. Back then, in other words, there was no "politics" as we have come to understand the term, just as there is less and less "politics" today in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sri Lanka, the Balkans and the Caucasus, among other places. Loose and shadowy organisms such as Islamic terrorist organizations suggest why borders will mean increasingly little and sedimentary layers of tribalistic identity and control will mean more. Future wars will be those of communal survival, aggravated or, in many cases, caused by environmental scarcity. These wars will be sub-national, meaning that it will be hard for states and local governments to protect their own citizens physically. In this hologram would be the overlapping sediments of group and other identities atop the merely two dimensional color markings of city states and the remaining nations, themselves confused in places by shadowy tentacles, hovering overhead, indicating the power of drug cartels, mafias and private security agencies. Instead of borders, there would be moving "centers" of power, as in the Middle Ages. To this protean cartographic hologram one must add other factors, such as migrations of populations, explosions of birth rates, vectors of disease. This future map-in a sense, the "Last Map"-will be an ever mutating representation of chaos. Indeed, it is not clear that the United States will survive the next century in exactly its present form. Because America is a multiethnic society, the nation state has always been more fragile here than it is in more homogeneous societies such as Germany and Japan. James Kurth, in an article published in the National Interest in 1992, explains that whereas nation state societies tend to be built around a mass conscription army and a standardized public school system, "multicultural regimes" feature a high tech, all volunteer army (and, I would add, private schools that teach competing values), operating in a culture in which the international media and entertainment industry have more influence than the "national political class. Writing about his immigrant family in turn of the century Chicago, Saul Bellow states, "The country took us over. During the 1960s, as is now clear, America began a slow but unmistakable process of transformation. The signs hardly need belaboring: racial polarity, educational dysfunction, social fragmentation of many and various kinds. It was apparent that drug smuggling, disease and other factors had contributed to the toughest security procedures I have ever encountered when returning from overseas. Then, for the first time in over a month, I spotted businesspeople with attachй cases and laptop computers. The only non-Africans off to West Africa had been relief workers in T-shirts and khakis. Although the borders within West Africa are increasingly unreal, those separating West Africa from the outside world are in various ways becoming more impenetrable. But Afrocentrists are right in one respect: We ignore this dying region at our own risk. When the Berlin Wall was falling, in November of 1989, I happened to be in Kosovo, covering a riot between Serbs and Albanians. The same day that Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat clasped hands on the White House lawn, my Air Afrique plane was approaching Bamako, Mali, revealing corrugated zinc shacks at the edge of an expanding desert. His article for all its dramatic prose and empirical observation is vulnerable to numerous critiques. Read as a cultural production of considerable political importance it is fairly easy to see how the logic of the analysis, premised on "eye witness" empirical observation, and drawing on an eclectic mixture of intellectual sources, leaves so much of significance unsaid. But the impression, as has traditionally been the case in geopolitical writing, generated from the juxtaposition of expert sources and empirical observation is that this is an "objective" detached geopolitical treatise. The focus in what follows is on the political implications of the widely shared geopolitical assumptions that structure this text and ultimately render the environment as a threat. The most important geopolitical premise in the argument posits a "bifurcated world", one in which the rich in the prosperous "posthistorical" cities and suburbs have mastered nature through the use of technology, while the rest of the population is stuck in poverty and ethnic strife in the shanty towns of the underdeveloped world. The closing image in the text of New York airport with its business people flying to Asia, but not to Africa, is very strongly reinforced through the article by the juxtaposition of the advertisements in the original magazine version of the article with the violent imagery of the photographs, and the themes in the text. The affluence of New York airport contrasts sharply with the poverty and dangers elsewhere. The wall of disease he writes about may bar many foreigners from all except some coastal "trading posts" of Africa in the future, but the significance of what is being traded and with what implications for the local environment is not investigated. While the lack of business people flying to Africa is noted, comments about the high rate of logging are never connected to the export markets for such goods, or to the economic circumstances of indebted African states that distort local economies to pay international loans and meet the requirements for structural adjustment programs. Logging continues apace, but it is apparently driven only by some indigenous local desire to strip the environment of trees, not by any exogenous cause. A focus on the larger political economy driving forest destruction would lead the analysis in a very different direction, but it is a direction that is not taken by the focus on West Africa as a quasi-autonomous geopolitical entity driven by internal developments. This is not to suggest that the legacy of colonialism, or the subsequent neo-colonial economic arrangements, are solely to "blame" for current crises, although the history cannot be ignored as Kaplan is wont to do. Kaplan ignores the legacy of the international food economy which has long played a large role in shaping the agricultural infrastructures, and the nutritional levels of many populations of different parts of the world in specific ways. He also ignores the impact of the economic crisis of the 1980s and the often deleterious impact of the debt crisis and structural adjustment policies. He completely misses their important impact on social patterns and the impact on rural women upon whom many of the worst impacts fell (Mackenzie, 1993). Ironically, given his repeated comments about the inadequacies of cartographic designations of state boundaries in revealing crossborder ethnic and criminal flows, Kaplan effectively establishes economic boundaries precisely by not investigating economic phenomena that supposedly ought to be crucial to his specification of various regions in Malthusian terms. While Kaplan emphasizes the inadequacies of maps for understanding ethnic and cultural clashes, he never investigates their similar inadequacies for understanding economic interconnections as an important part of either the international relations or the foreign policies of these states. The crucial failure to do this allows for the attribution of the "failure" of societies to purely internal factors. Once again the local environment can be constructed as the cause of disaster without any reference to the historical patterns of development that may be partly responsible for the social processes of degradation (Crush, 1995; Slater, 1993). Given the focus of most Malthusians on the shortage of "subsistence" and resources in general, there is remarkably little investigation of how the burgeoning populations of various parts of the world actually are provided for either in terms of food production or other daily necessities. While cities are dismissed as "dysfunctional" the very fact that they continue to grow despite all their difficulties suggests that they do "function" in many ways. There is no analysis here of traditional patterns of subsistence production and how they and access to land may be changing in the rural areas, particularly under the continuing influence of modernization. While it is made clear that traditional rural social patterns fray when people move to the very different circumstances of the city, the reasons for migration are assumed but never investigated. Why Malthus, in particular, should be the prophet of West Africa, given the complete failure to investigate the changing patterns of these rural economies, is far from clear. Disease and crowding there may be in the shanty towns of many cities, a phenomenon that is not exactly new, but not all the new urban population are dispossessed forest dwellers or refugees from criminal activities. His discussion of Turkey suggests that while urbanization is occurring rapidly, social cohesion and resistance to crime are being maintained by Islam, even as new geopolitical identities are being forged in the slums. Here resurgent cultural fears of "the Other" and assumptions about the persistence of cultural patterns of animosity and social cleavage are substituted for analysis of resources and rural political ecology. Precisely where the crucial connections between environmental change, migration and conflict should be investigated, the analysis turns away to look at ethnic rivalries and the collapse of social order. The connections are asserted, not demonstrated, and in so far as this is done the opportunity for detailed analysis is missed and the powerful rhetoric of the argument retraces familiar political territory instead of looking in detail at the environment as a factor in social change. In this failure to document the crucial causal connections in his cases Kaplan ironically follows Malthus who relied on his unproven key assumption that subsistence increases only at an arithmetic rate in contrast to geometric population growth. Political angst about the collapse of order is substituted for an investigation of the specific reasons for rapid urbanization, a process that is by default rendered as a "natural" product of demographic pressures. Economics becomes nature, nature in the form of political chaos becomes a threat, the provision of security from such threats thus becomes a policy priority. In this way "nature unchecked" can thus be read directly as a security threat to the political order of post-modernity. Thus, in his formulation, the debate is shifted from matters of humanitarian concern, starvation, famine relief and aid projects and refocused on matters of military threat and concern for political order within Northern states. What ultimately seems to matter in this new designation is whether political disorder and crime will spill over into the affluent North. The affluent world of the Atlantic advertisements with their high-technology consumer items (Saabs, Mazdas and Bose stereos etc. The article implies that it has done so already in so far as American inner cities are plagued with violent crime. The reformulation once again posits a specific geopolitical framework for security thinking. What cannot be found in this article is any suggestion that the affluence of those in the limousine might in some way be part of the same political economy that produces the conditions of those outside. This connection is simply not present in the text of the article because of the spatial distinctions Kaplan makes between "here" and "there". He notes the dangers of the criminals from "there" compromising the safety of "here" but never countenances the possibility that the economic affluence of "here" is related to the poverty of "there". The spatial construction of his discourse precludes such consideration, only some factors violate the integrity of cartographic boundaries. Although Kaplan is particularly short on policy prescription in his Atlantic article, some of the implications of his reworked Malthusianism do have clear policy implications. If contact is restricted to coastal trading posts then the "wall of disease" will become a wall of separation keeping non-Africans out and restricting the possibilities for Africans to migrate. Once again security is understood in the geopolitical term of containment and exclusion. He suggests that intervention in Bosnia would do some good, because the developed nature of the societies in conflict there allows some optimism that a political settlement is workable. The chances of intervention having much effect in Africa are dismissed because of the illiterate poverty stricken populations there. These programs will, Kaplan hopes, in the very long term resolve some of the worst problems allowing development to occur and "democracy" eventually to emerge. Precisely this marginalization is of concern to many African leaders and academics. But in stark contrast to Kaplan, many Africans emphasize the need to stop the export of wealth from the Continent, and the need to draw on indigenous traditions to rebuild shattered societies and economies (Adadeji, 1993; Amin, 1990; Taylor and Mackenzie, 1992). Spatial strategies of containment are a long standing component of security thinking. Cutting anarchy ridden regions loose in the hopes that their political turmoil will remain internal makes sense in an argument that constructs these places as clearly external to the political arrangements that one wishes to render secure from threats. Given the specification of the political turmoil as caused internally within these areas, this argument makes logical sense. Also given the startling failure in this analysis to consider matters of international economics as a possible cause for some of the phenomena that are involved in the dissolution of political order, no sense of external responsibility applies. They suit it here because they emphasize political violence and threats across frontiers that are in some cases disappearing. But to advocate these "solutions" is once again to specify complex political phenomena in territorial terms, a strategy that is, as John Agnew argues, falling into the familiar "territorial trap" in international relations thinking where boundaries are confused with barriers and flows and linkages are obscured by the widespread assumption of autonomous states as the only actors of real importance in considering global politics (Agnew, 1994). He argues that they are threats to political stability and in the case of Africa probably worth cutting loose from conventional political involvement. In the subsequent Washington Post article he argues against military interventions in Africa on the basis of their uselessness in the political situation of gangs, crime and the absence of centralized political authority. Through the Cold War these focused on questions of ensuring Western access to strategic minerals in the continent. But Kaplan ignores both these economic interconnections and their strategic implications, preferring an oversimplified geopolitical specification of Malthusian-induced social collapse as the sole focus of concern. But the specification of danger as an external "natural" phenomena works in an analogous way to the traditional political use of NeoMalthusian logic. Once again threats are outside human regulation, inevitable and natural in some senses-if not anarchic in the neo-realist sense of state system structure then natural in a more fundamental sense of "nature unchecked". By the specific spatial assumptions built into his reasoning Kaplan accomplishes geopolitically what Malthusian thinking did earlier in economic terms. Coupled to prevalent American political concerns with security as "internal" vulnerability to violent crime, and "external" fears of various foreign military, terrorist, economic, racial, and immigration "threats", Kaplan re-articulates his modified Malthusianism in the powerful discursive currency of geopolitics. His themes fit neatly with media coverage of Rwanda and Somalia where his diagnosis of the future appeared in many media accounts to be occurring nearly immediately. Understood as problems of "tribal" warfare such formulations reproduce the earlier tropes of "primitive savagery".
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Quality of the intact fruit or vegetable depends upon the cultivar depression explosive anger purchase zoloft 25 mg line, preharvest cultural practices and climatic conditions mood disorder otherwise not specified buy zoloft 25 mg online, maturity at harvest depression symptoms dogs order zoloft 100mg without a prescription, and harvesting method reactive depression definition zoloft 25 mg sale. Handling procedures anxiety level test buy discount zoloft 100mg, conditions depression glass ebay 50mg zoloft with amex, and time between harvest and preparation as a fresh-cut product also have major impacts on quality of intact fruits and vegetables and, consequently, quality of the fresh-cut products. Additional factors that influence quality of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables include method of preparation (sharpness of the cutting tools, size and surface area of the cut pieces, washing, and removal of surface moisture) and subsequent handling conditions (packaging, speed of cooling, maintaining optimum ranges of temperature and relative humidity, expedited marketing, and proper sanitation procedures). An effective quality assurance program must take into consideration all the factors that affect quality of the intact fruits or vegetables and their fresh-cut products. Defects can originate before harvest as a result of damage by insects, diseases, birds, and hail; chemical injuries; and various blemishes (such as scars, scabs, russeting, rind staining). Postharvest defects may be morphological, physical, physiological, or pathological. Morphological defects include sprouting of potatoes, onions, and garlic; rooting of onions; elongation and curvature of asparagus; seed germination inside fruits such as lemons, tomatoes, and peppers; presence of seed stems in cabbage and lettuce; doubles in cherries; and floret opening in broccoli. Physical defects include shriveling and wilting of all commodities; internal drying of some fruits; mechanical damage such as punctures, cuts and deep scratches, splits and crushing, skin abrasions and scuffing, deformation (compression), and bruising; and growth cracks (radial, concentric). Temperature-related disorders (freezing, chilling, sunburn, sunscald), puffiness of tomatoes, blossom-end rot tomatoes, tipburn of lettuce, internal breakdown of stone fruits, water core of apples, and black heart of potatoes are examples of physiological defects. Examples of defects that do not influence postharvest life potential of fresh produce include healed frost damage, scars, and scabs; well-healed insect stings; irregular shape; and suboptimal color uniformity and intensity. Most other defects (listed above) reduce postharvest life potential of fresh fruits and vegetables. Textural quality of fruits and vegetables is not only important for their eating and cooking quality but also for their shipping ability. Soft fruits cannot be shipped long distances without extensive losses due to physical injuries. This has necessitated harvesting fruits at less than ideal maturity from the flavor quality standpoint in many cases, such as the melons sold during the winter months in the U. Tissue softening and associated loss of integrity and leakage of juice from some fresh-cut products can be the primary cause of poor quality and unmarketability. Also, initial firmness, temperature, and vibration influence the rate of softening and juice leakage from fresh-cut fruits. Objective analytical determination of critical components must be coupled with subjective evaluations by a taste panel to yield useful and meaningful information about flavor quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. To find out consumer preferences of flavor of a given commodity, large-scale testing by a representative sample of the consumers is required. Flavor quality of most fruits is influenced by their contents of sugars (sweetness), organic acids (acidity), phenolic compounds (astringency), and odor-active volatiles (aroma). More information is needed about the optimum concentration ranges of these constituents to assure good overall flavor (based on sensory evaluation) of each kind of fruit (to satisfy the majority of consumers). Also, future research and development efforts on objective quality evaluation methods must include nondestructive segregation of fruits on the basis of their contents of sugars, acids, phenolics, and or odor-active volatiles. In many cases, consumers are willing to pay a higher price for fruits with good flavor, and there is a growing trend of high-quality-based stores that serve this clientele. Other constituents that may lower the risk of cancer, heart disease, and other diseases include flavonoids, carotenoids, polyphenols, and other phytonutrients. Postharvest losses in nutritional quality, particularly vitamin C content, can be substantial and are enhanced by physical damage, extended storage duration, high temperatures, low relative humidity, and chilling injury of chilling-sensitive commodities. Nutritional value varies greatly among commodities and cultivars of each commodity. By using plant breeding and biotechnology approaches, it is possible to develop genotypes with enhanced nutritional quality and improved flavor quality to encourage consumers to eat more fruits and vegetables (at least five servings per day). Plant breeders have been successful in selecting carrot and tomato cultivars with much higher carotenoids and vitamin A content, sweet corn cultivars that maintain their sweetness longer after harvest, cantaloupe cultivars with higher sugar content and firmer flesh, and pineapple cultivars with higher contents of ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and sugars. These are just a few examples of what has been accomplished in improving quality of fruits and vegetables by genetic manipulations. However, in some cases, commercial cultivars, selected for their ability to withstand the rigors of marketing and distribution, tend to lack sufficient quality, particularly flavor. Rootstocks used in fruit production vary in their water and nutrient uptake abilities and in resistance to pests and diseases. Thus, rootstocks can influence fruit composition and some quality attributes as well as yield, in many cases. There are many opportunities in using biotechnology to maintain postharvest quality and safety of fresh-cut products. However, the priority goals should be to reduce browning potential and softening rate, to attain and maintain good flavor and nutritional quality to meet consumer demands, and to introduce resistance to physiological disorders and/or decay-causing pathogens to reduce the use of chemicals. A cost/benefit analysis (including consumer acceptance issues) should be used to determine priorities for genetic improvement programs. For example, increasing the consumption of certain commodities and/or cultivars that are already high in nutritive value may be more effective and less expensive than breeding for higher contents of nutrients. Consequently, the location and season in which plants are grown can determine their ascorbic acid, carotene, riboflavin, thiamine, and flavonoids content. In general, the lower the light intensity, the lower the ascorbic acid content of plant tissues. Temperature influences uptake and metabolism of mineral nutrients by plants because transpiration increases with higher temperatures. Rainfall affects the water supply to the plant, which may influence composition of the harvested plant part and its susceptibility to mechanical damage during subsequent harvesting and handling operations. For example, sulfur and selenium uptake influence the concentrations of organosulfur compounds in Allium and Brassica species. High calcium content in fruits has been related to longer postharvest life as a result of reduced rates of respiration and ethylene production, delayed ripening, increased firmness, and reduced incidence of physiological disorders and decay. In contrast, high nitrogen content is often associated with shorter postharvest life due to increased susceptibility to mechanical damage, physiological disorders, and decay. Increasing the nitrogen and/or phosphorus supply to citrus trees results in somewhat lower acidity and ascorbic acid content in citrus fruits, while increased potassium fertilization increases their acidity and ascorbic acid content. For example, bitter pit of apples; blossom-end rot of tomatoes, peppers, and watermelons; cork spot in apples and pears; and red blotch of lemons are associated with calcium deficiency in these fruits. Boron deficiency results in corking of apples, apricots, and pears; lumpy rind of citrus fruits; malformation of stone fruits; and cracking of apricots. Excess sodium and/or chloride (due to salinity) results in reduced fruit size and higher soluble solids content. Severe water stress results in increased sunburn of fruits, irregular ripening of pears, and tough and leathery texture of peaches. Moderate water stress reduces fruit size and increases contents of soluble solids, acidity, and ascorbic acid. On the other hand, excess water supply to the plants results in cracking of fruits (such as cherries, prunes, and tomatoes), excessive turgidity leading to increased susceptibility to physical damage, reduced firmness, delayed maturity, and reduced soluble solids content. Cultural practices such as pruning and thinning determine the crop load and fruit size, which can influence composition of fruit. The use of pesticides and growth regulators does not directly influence fruit composition but may indirectly affect it due to delayed or accelerated fruit maturity. Physiological maturity is the stage of development when a plant or plant part will continue ontogeny even if detached. Horticultural maturity is the stage of development when a plant or plant part possesses the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Maturity at harvest is the most important factor that determines storage life and final fruit quality. Immature fruits are more subject to shriveling and mechanical damage and are of inferior quality when ripe. Overripe fruits are likely to become soft and mealy with insipid flavor soon after harvest. Any fruit picked either too early or too late in its season is more susceptible to physiological disorders and has a shorter storage life than fruit picked at the proper maturity. However, some fruits are usually picked mature but unripe so that they can withstand the postharvest handling system when shipped long distance. Most currently used maturity indices are based on a compromise between those indices that would ensure the best eating quality to the consumer and those that provide the needed flexibility in marketing. In these vegetables, the problem frequently is delayed harvest, which results in lower quality at harvest and faster deterioration after harvest. Fruits can be divided into two groups: fruits that are not capable of continuing their ripening process once removed from the plant and fruits that can be harvested mature and ripened off the plant. The following are examples from each group: · Group one includes berries (such as blackberry, raspberry, strawberry), cherry, citrus (grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, mandarin, and tangerine), grape, lychee, muskmelons, pineapple, pomegranate, tamarillo, and watermelon. Fruits of the first group, with the exception of some types of muskmelons, produce very small quantities of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene treatment except in terms of degreening (removal of chlorophyll); these should be picked when fully ripe to ensure good flavor quality. Fruits in group two produce much larger quantities of ethylene in association with their ripening, and exposure to ethylene treatment (100 ppm for 1 to 2 days at 20°C) will result in faster and more uniform ripening. Fruits in group two must be ripened, at least partially, before cutting to assure better flavor quality in the fresh-cut products. The incidence and severity of such injuries are influenced by the method of harvest (hand vs. Physical damage before, during, and after cutting is a major contributor to tissue browning, juice leakage, and faster deterioration of the fresh-cut products. Above the freezing point (for non-chillingsensitive commodities) and above the minimum safe temperature (for chillingsensitive commodities), every 10°C increase in temperature accelerates deterioration and the rate of loss in nutritional quality by two- to threefold. Delays between harvesting and cooling or processing can result in quantitative losses (due to water loss and decay) and qualitative losses (losses in flavor and nutritional quality). The distribution chain rarely has the facilities to store each commodity under ideal conditions and requires handlers to make compromises as to the choices of temperature and relative humidity. These choices can lead to physiological stress and loss of shelf life and quality. The weakest two links in the postharvest handling cold chain of fresh fruits and vegetables are the retail and home handling systems. In most cases, these treatments are useful in maintaining quality and extending postharvest life of the produce. However, there is a need to determine the maximum storage period that can be used for each commodity between harvest and preparation as a fresh-cut product. Generally, the longer the storage duration of the intact commodity between harvest and cutting, the shorter the post-cutting life of the products. Maintaining the optimal ranges of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene concentrations around the commodity extends its postharvest life by about 50100% relative to air control. In general, low O2 atmospheres reduce deterioration and losses of ascorbic acid in fresh produce. Exposure to ethylene can be detrimental to the quality of most vegetables and should be avoided by separating ethylene-producing commodities from ethylenesensitive commodities, by using ethylene scrubbers, and/or by introducing fresh, ethylene-free air into storage rooms. More research is needed to identify the reasons for the flavor loss and possible treatments to slow it down and to restore the ability of the fruit tissue to produce the desirable esters and other aroma compounds. Use of calcium chloride or calcium lactate in combination with ascorbic acid and cysteine as a processing aid (two-minute dip) has been shown to be effective in firmness retention and in delaying browning of fresh-cut fruits. Additional research is needed to optimize preparation and subsequent handling procedures for maintaining quality and safety of each fruit product. Quality assurance starts in the field with the selection of the proper time to harvest for maximum quality. Careful harvesting is essential to minimize physical injuries and maintain quality. Each subsequent step after harvest has the potential to either maintain or reduce quality; few postharvest procedures can improve the quality of individual units of the commodity. Exposure of a commodity to temperatures, relative humidities, and/or concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene outside its optimum ranges will accelerate loss of all quality attributes. The loss of flavor and nutritional quality of fresh intact or cut fruits and vegetables occurs at a faster rate than the loss of textural and appearance qualities. Thus, quality assurance programs should be based on all quality attributes, not only on appearance factors as is often the case. Following is a list of handling steps and associated quality assurance functions: 1. Training workers on proper maturity and quality selection, careful handling, and produce protection from sun exposure during harvesting operations 2. Checking packaging materials and shipping containers to ensure they meet specifications 5. Inspecting a random sample of the packed product to ensure that it meets grade specification 7. Monitoring product temperature to assure completion of the cooling process before shipment 8. Inspecting all transport vehicles before loading for functionality and cleanliness 9. Training workers on proper loading and placement of temperature-recording devices in each load 10. Checking product quality upon receipt and moving it quickly to the appropriate storage area 12. Preharvest and postharvest factors influencing vitamin C content of horticultural crops. Moreover, fruits and vegetables are short-lived commodities hardly compatible with one shopping trip a week. It is noteworthy that easy-to-use vegetables such as tomato and endive tips (witloof) did not follow this trend. This trend alarmed nutritionists and supervisors of supermarket fresh fruit and vegetable departments.
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To establish approaches to the management and restoration of invaded urban landscapes depression symptoms za best zoloft 100 mg, engaging with local communities - along with experts in both restoration and invasion ecology depression symptoms tagalog generic 50 mg zoloft with visa, but led by local knowledge and those who continue to live in those landscape - provides innovative approaches and frameworks to manage and restore urban landscapes degraded by invasive species (Fisher depression symptoms and treatment in hindi buy cheap zoloft 25mg, 2011; Fisher depression definition dsm 4 zoloft 50mg on-line, 2016; Gaertner et al depression test dansk safe 50 mg zoloft. Local communities understand the importance of managing the landscape and the ecosystem as a whole bipolar depression checklist discount zoloft 100 mg line. Invasive species management using a holistic ecosystem approach and driven by local communities, in differing urban landscapes - including coastal, woodlands, wetlands, rivers and estuaries - has proven to be highly successful in restoring functioning ecosystems. Long-term outcomes include restored urban environments resilient to changing climates with focus on the removal of all invasive species and their replacement with indigenous species (Fisher, 2011; Fisher, 2016; Gaertner et al. Such an ecosystem approach to tackling invasive species has been adopted by the Sri Lankan Government at the national level and incorporated across policy, strategy, action planning, management and restoration (Fisher, 2015; Sri Lanka National Invasive Alien Species Committee, 2015). The implementation of practical strategies usually occurs at local and national levels, and involves three successive steps - prevention, eradication and control (see Figure 6. In general, the most effective strategy is to prevent introductions of potentially invasive species before their establishment (Allendorf & Lundquist, 2003; Hulme, 2006; Leung et al. Preventive measures focus on identifying and monitoring common biological invasion pathways. Trade globalization and expanded transport networks have led to pathway risk assessments becoming the frontline in the prevention of invasions (Hulme, 2009). Pathway risk assessment relies heavily on spatial data, with risk maps that highlighting hotspots of invasion likelihood being a common product (Buckley, 2008). Linked to this is the identification of the invaders themselves and measuring their impacts (Blackburn et al. The second component to prevention is interception (Boy & Witt, 2013), including the establishment of environmental biosecurity departments to carry out activities such as search and seizure procedures at first points of entry, as well as quarantine measures to block or restrict incursions. Managing invasive species is complex and challenging, primarily because of the dynamic nature of invasion processes, variable effects on different land-use systems. Typically, the costs of invasive alien species management strategies exceed available resources, particularly where socio-economic impacts of invasion disproportionately affect less advantaged social groups (Rai et al. Such quarantine measures are, however, not necessarily feasible or effective in resource- and/or infrastructureconstrained settings. Eradication is the next option in the practical response continuum and entails the systematic elimination of the invading species until it can be ascertained that no individuals, viable seeds or other propagules remain in an area (Boy & Witt, 2013). Eradication has been achieved, notably in island settings, with substantially more examples of successful eradication of vertebrate species than plant species (Genovesi, 2005; Glen et al. Social acceptability of invasive animal eradication is controversial due to ethical issues (Cowan et al. In South Africa, for example, the National Department of Environmental Affairs has collaborated with the South African National Biodiversity Institute in the implementation of the Early Detection and Rapid Response programme (Ntshotsho et al. Figure 6 8 Prioritization to support cost-effective allocation of resources is part of decisionmaking at nearly every stage of the invasion process, from preventing introduction of invasive alien species, to preventing their spread, to eradication or containment. Alien species present in country; origin; current distribution; evidence of impact. Country relevant, realised and potential pahtways; purpose of introduction; pathway loads. Successful control depends more on commitment and sustained diligence than on the efficacy of specific tools themselves, as well as the adoption of an ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a focus on individual invaders (Mack et al. For invasive plant species, integrated weed management, which involves a combination of measures (Adkins & Shabbir, 2014), may be effective for long-term control in cases where invasive plants are able to survive individual measures. Generally, four types of control measures are in use for invasive plants: mechanical and/or manual, cultural, biological, and chemical; but "control by use" has also been considered as a control measure. Mechanical and/or manual control of invasive plant species are often labour intensive, but in countries where communities manage land, and affordable labour is available, manual control is feasible (Rai et al. Activities like hand-pulling and hoeing are site specific, can be effective in loose and moist soils, and to control small infestations (Sheley et al. At a local level, a recent assessment of one of the projects has demonstrated significant water gains (Ntshotsho et al. Modelling shows that clearing of the upper catchment of the Berg River Dam (Figure 6. Improved water supply is not the only potential benefit of invasive alien plant eradication. Another project looking at the rangeland impacts of invasion has shown that Acacia mearnsii can reduce grazing capacity by 56% and 72% on lightly and densely invaded sites respectively, whereas clearing can reverse these losses by 66% within 5 years (Yapi, 2013). Improved pasture condition has a direct positive impact on livestock condition and this can lead to improved human well-being at the household level (Ntshotsho et al. This has been demonstrated in yet another Working for Water project which looks beyond just the clearing of invasive alien plant species (Acacia spp. Indigent communities in a rural part of South Africa were trained, guided and supported, through the programme to restore communal land. After two growing seasons post-clearing, there was discernible improvement in the physical condition of cattle. The cattle owners were then assisted to sell their stock to commercial butchers in the area in two auctions that generated revenue totalling just over R1. The success of the Working for Water programme can be attributed to four interconnected factors at project level: commitment, passion, strategic planning and the consideration of context (Ntshotsho et al. In addition, political buy-in and long-term commitment of funds by government are equally important for the success of the programme at national level. These invasions pose a threat to human well-being by negatively impacting the provision of ecosystem services such as water and grazing (van Wilgen et al. Government funding to the programme increased from an initial f R25 million/yr (approx. The Working for Water programme has always adopted an integrated approach to invasive alien plant control, combining manual and chemical measures together with biocontrol. The programme is strongly supported by several pieces of legislation, primarily the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act No. Since its inception, the programme has maintained close links with the research community and has been influenced by scientific research (Ntshotsho et al. More than a million ha have been cleared since the beginning and employment opportunities are provided to approx. Because of its positive societal and environmental impacts, the programme has grown and diversified into other programmes and, together, they now all fall under the Natural Resources Management umbrella programme. Its effective implementation based on extensive testing and validation for host-specificity to predict risk and minimize adverse environmental impacts (Delfosse, 2005; Messing & Wright, 2006) - is considered to be a cost-effective, long-term and self-sustaining control measure (Schlaepfer et al. Chemical control (use of biocides) is probably the most widelyadopted measure to control invasive plant and insect species. It is also the least desirable due to unintended adverse impacts on other non-target species in the surrounding environment and human health impacts (Giesy et al. It is financially feasible under certain conditions such as high-value crops, at roadsides, public parks or on small areas (Adkins & Shabbir, 2014). Of concern is the growing global incidence of herbicide In terms of the effectiveness for controlling invasion of Prosopis spp. In Kenya and Ethiopia, prosopis has also been managed through "control by use" method. Biological control to manage prosopis has been found more effective in Australia with the use of four biological control agents: Algarobius bottimeri, A. The use of heavy equipment and soil stockpiling during mining remains a major limitation to quickly re-establishing ecosystem structure and function (Harris et al. Potential off-site impacts, particularly the generation of acid mine drainage, need to be minimized by on-site management. There are several examples of such practices, for instance: controlled grazing to control Parthenium hysterphorus and Centaurea solstitialis (Adkins & Shabbir, 2014; DiTomaso, 2000); manipulating shading by overstorey to hinder the growth of Lantana camara (Duggin & Gentle, 1998); and prescribed burning to control invasion of annual broadleaf and grass species (DiTomaso et al. Indigenous practices for responding to invasive species provide important opportunities for effective responses and vary across the globe and the landscape (Ens et al. However, considering that invasive plants are likely to become established in disturbed habitats, cultural practices do pose a risk of promoting their proliferation (Fine, 2002; Moore, 2000). Herbicide resistance threatens to undermine control efforts and, consequently, underscores the need for integrated management (Kohli et al. An overemphasis on idealized optimal conditions has often led to prescriptive targets for restoration, with the danger that this limits variability and spontaneity in the restored ecosystem (Brudvig et al. Approaches include active intervention such as re-contouring, planting, soil amendment, inoculation, animal re-introduction and "spontaneous redevelopment" (Parrotta & Knowles, 2001; Prach et al. Sound waste management and rehabilitation plans are key elements in environmental restoration following the closure of mines (Adiansyah et al. Topsoil management is of course critical, but only after a replacement of overburden and landscape reformation (Harris & Birch, 1989; Parrotta & Knowles, 2001). However, activities related to site rehabilitation yield no capital returns to mining operations and can have significant impacts on their operational costs and economic feasibility. Therefore, in less developed economies with weak mining governance, mitigation plans may be neglected. On mined lands, active restoration is required to trigger natural processes of succession and to develop functioning soils (Gardner & Bell, 2007; Koch & Hobbs, 2007; Skirycz et al. The use of native species tolerant to heavy metals (metallophytes), and others capable of rapid soil development. However, this is not important when non-metalliferous materials have been extracted, especially coal, which covers a significant portion of the total area affected by surface mining, despite the fact that some sites suffer from an acidic pH, which is usually addressed by liming. A wide range of responses is available, ranging from "spontaneous regeneration", through direct seeding and planting, to animal species reintroduction (see Stanturf et al. Although significant research into physical management, organic and inorganic additions, plant reintroduction and fungal propagule inoculation has been carried out, the restoration of mined lands remains an intractable problem, with estimates of recovery varying from 10 to1000 years. Predicting time for ecosystem recovery is in practice difficult to determine, as different ecosystem characteristics recover at different rates, depending on degradation and disturbance type, site topology, on-site resources and off-site recruitment potential (Curran et al. When only sub-soils and overburden materials are available for reclamation and/or restoration after mineral extraction, the addition of topsoil and composts can greatly aid establishment of vegetation (Spargo & Doley, 2016) and fauna (Cristescu et al. Active intervention with fertilizers and soil amendments can enhance nutrient cycling and tree establishment (Howell et al. Soil ecology research has been used extensively to track the changes in sites subject to restoration programmes (Harris, 2003). Earthworm reintroduction has a positive effect on ecosystem service re-establishment (Boyer & Wratten, 2010), but only where they are natives. Mine site restoration in the Jarrah forest of Western Australia has been considered a largely successful case in terms of restoring vegetation (Grant & Koch, 2007) and fauna (Craig et al. Nonetheless, progress towards a "reference" was more rapid than in less intensive programmes of restoration where fewer plant species and soil stockpiling were used; as opposed to the direct soil replacement and multiple tree species planting practices used in the Jarrah restoration programme. Furthermore, by amending post-mining soils with "live" soils from a desired reference state site can enhance the rate at which ecosystem characteristics recover on drastically disturbed post-mined sites (van der Bij et al. Moving from stockpiling soils during mining operations, to "direct replacement" involving careful handling of soils during transfer, secures both better plant establishment and belowground invertebrates, especially earthworms (Boyer et al. Moreover, the re-use of stockpiled soil materials combined with on-site waste mineral resources - can ensure a more complete and functionally-capable soil microbial community in post-mining sites (Kumaresan et al. Further, in many cases, woodland vegetation may become established on a successional trajectory through spontaneous regeneration after just 20 years on previously forested sites, but wetland sites are more variable in their progress (Prach et al. Spontaneously regenerated sites provide better cover for establishing climax woody species than those sites which are deliberately planted (Frouz et al. An essential caveat here is that without a readily available source of seeds and fungal spores that are able to reach these sites by natural means, such successional processes may take much longer. For example, applying animal or green manures can improve soil health and quality by increasing soil porosity, enhancing soil structure. Tools for assessing the effects of various response strategies on soil health and quality - at level of the field, farm, catchment, or larger areas - include the Soil Management Assessment Framework (Andrews et al. This has been done by integrating soil protection into several European Community Policies (Toth, 2010), since efforts to establish a universal "Soils Framework" were unsuccessful. Afforestation of unused, marginal and abandoned land, as well as harvesting forests more frequently, could further promote carbon sequestration (Bird & Boysen, 2007; Harris et al. Better harvest management and prevention of forest fire or other disturbances can further increase forest carbon storage capacity (Liu et al. To meet those needs, while sustaining or improving soil health or soil quality, several soil and crop management response strategies have been developed - including various combinations of tillage, crop rotation, nutrient management, cover crops and other practices collectively referred to as "agronomic practices". Other response strategies include agroecology, organic farming, ecological intensification, conservation agriculture, integrated crop livestock and integrated crop livestock forestry systems. All of these strategies have different energy intensities, effects on biodiversity and levels of reliance on agrichemicals. These must be balanced through sitespecific decisions which also recognize inherent constraints including climate change, acidification and salinization. To monitor the effects of any response strategy, several soil health and/or soil quality indicators have been identified: biomass growth, development and productivity (Ponisio et al. Ideally, producers voluntarily select the most appropriate combination of practices to meet economic, environmental and social goals, but science-based regulations may be imperative in some situations (Chasek et al. Soil health and quality have become essential for evaluating profitability and, as a guideline, for avoiding and reducing land degradation or restoring degraded lands due to their influence on: water entry, retention and release to plants; nutrient cycling; crop emergence, growth and rooting patterns; and ultimately yield. Response strategies include reducing atmospheric deposition and use of acidifying soil amendments such as anhydrous ammonia. Transitioning from long-term, highrate nitrogen fertilizer applications and continuous cropping without organic inputs, in Africa, has been recommended to mitigate acidification (Tully et al. Acidification increases the mobility and leaching of exchangeable base cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium), decreases soil buffering capacity and increases concentrations of aluminium, magnesium and several heavy metals that are toxic to most plants. This increases base saturation, decreases concentrations of aluminium, magnesium and other contaminants, improves the acid-base status of streams draining the area and stimulates recovery of biotic resources (Battles et al. Unfortunately, liming is less effective for acidified subsoil, as time is required for lime to penetrate through topsoil before it can neutralize the acidity (Johnson et al. Another response strategy is to change the amount and type of nitrogen fertilizer which Chen et al. This has been occurring in Western Europe since 1980, because of increased air quality regulations (Virto et al.
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