Department of Emergency Medicine, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson
Medical School, Camden, NJ, USA
The awareness of the surroundings and their ability to overcome the environment are parts of the index that indicates individual wellness of the mental health women's health big book of exercises barnes and noble order 500 mg capecitabine with amex. Therefore menopause blood test purchase capecitabine 500mg fast delivery, it can be justified that those who have good mental health would have a positive attitude in life pregnancy kegel exercises order capecitabine 500 mg on line, become sustainable women's health program birth control capecitabine 500mg discount, learn to share breast cancer ugg boots capecitabine 500 mg line, and establish strong relationship with family womens health protection act capecitabine 500 mg visa, friends, and community. These social skills will assist to live and manage their mind in recognition of the possibilities of the world as it actually is. Suggestions and Conclusion the recommendations from this study can be used as a guideline to create a policy or set a plan to strengthen the knowledge, attitude, and practice concerning the students in elementary inclusive schools. The study shows that training experience in special education is correlated to the knowledge, attitude, and practice concerning the students in elementary inclusive schools. To increase the knowledge regarding students in elementary inclusive schools or children with special needs, the school or relevant authorities should collaborate systemically to organize workshops for the newly employed teachers and education personnel and assemble trainings annually. The results also indicate that mental health is correlated to the knowledge, attitude, and practice concerning the students in elementary inclusive schools. Schools and relevant agencies should be trained on the skills and knowledge related to special education. Ultimately, if the teachers and education personnel were capable to work well, the pressure from workplace would be decreased. Acknowledgement the author would like to express her gratitude to the board of directors and personnel of the Research and Development Institute, Rajanagarindra Rajabhat University for the funding and supports of this study. The author also wishes to express her sincere thanks to the teachers and education personnel in the schools under the Chachoengsao Primary Educational Service Area Office 1 for providing imperative information in this study. The readiness of teachers in basic education Changwat Suphanburi Schools Area 1 for inclusive education. The casual factors of academic achievement of students with learning disabilities for inclusive classroom. The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings Abstract this research was aimed to study context, ways of thinking, principle, wisdom evidence and knowledge management on weaving reed mats of the entrepreneur group and the continuation of adopted local wisdom through the decoration design and development the reed mat products of the Bang Pluang Reed-Mat-Transformation Community, Ban Sang District, PrachinBuri, Thailand. The data analysis was conducted through documents, field study, discussion, observation and practice of participation. Results revealed that the context, ways of thinking, principle and wisdom evidence in weaving reed mat were ways of life among people in the community that had been passed over from generation to generation. The production of reed-mat was aimed to sustain the wisdom of families and community that was dependent on in-home labor, local resources, one and other members in the community. In order to maintain this local wisdom in developing the product decoration with geometric shapes, they used archetypical designs of the reed-mat-transformation community entrepreneurs. The product decoration could be adapted and developed for an appropriation in changing tendency of consumption, where it was at a high level with an average of 4. It was found that an appropriation in the decoration was good enough to produce for sale, where it was in the highest level with average of 4. Meanwhile, they should establish and adjust relationship among themselves for equilibrium, mental security, and life smoothness. Due to the fact that human beings were the special animals who used their own wisdom to solve problems. Incidentally, wisdom still played a pivotal role in accumulating and passing over, and enhancing their experiences. Wisdom is body of knowledge, ability and skills of people; it was uniquely accumulated from experiences or clarity on life and local society. Therefore, local wisdom was our everyday experiences, and it had been passed a study process and observation and had crystalized from various kinds of knowledge. Incidentally, "mat" was regarded as weaving handicraft which was unique and could reflect the uniqueness of local wisdom that had been passed on for generations. Mat weaving occurred from local wisdom which evolutionarily mixed with local resources, namely "reed". Formerly, the reed mat was used in home and when it could be produced in a large quantity, its purpose was changed to be a subject to exchange for other goods. Incidentally, there were more than 350 Rais in Bansang District, Prachinburi Province used for reed plantation. Local people were agriculturists; and reed mat weaving reed was their extra job, parttime self-employment, which was passed down from their ancestors. As a result, the community enterprise group wished to develop the unique designs in order to response the current demands and to secure community income as well as to be proud in community uniqueness for sustainable development. Objectives - To study the local wisdom of knowledge management on mat weaving of the community enterprise group in Bangsang District, Prachinburi Province. The research scope was conducted with sociological concepts and theories, concept of participation, community knowledge management, design development as well as researches on development of reed mat products. Collect basic data from documents, study mat and how to enter community as main information source. Study the designs of reed mat - Concepts of designing patterns had developed to more complicated and beautiful patterns. It was behavioral process that could be counted from planning, material selection creation method. Try out the prepared design patterns for the field experiment - Check out the weaving instruments. Conduct participation action research - Determine problems and action research plan. Research instruments for data collecting Research instruments for data collecting were as follows; - Unstructured Interview: It was an interview with open end questions in which the interviewees could express freely their opinions to the given questions. The questions were broad and flexible and a subject to be changed for appropriateness. Part 1: General information; it was check list on general status namely gender, age, educational background, salary, and occupation. Part 2: Satisfaction on the reed-mat design; it was beauty, modernity, colors and use appropriateness. Part 3: Opinion; it was a part in which customers could give their opinion freely. Data Collecting and Checking the researcher collected data through 4 steps: Study documents, observation, informal interview, and focus group. Data Analysis 144 the Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings Data from documents were analyzed through content analysis approach. For data derived from observation, interview and focus group, they were done through data classification, data comparison, inductive summary, empirical data and action participation research. Offspring received this local wisdom for process and techniques of mat weaving from their ancestors. Improving and solving problems resulted in body of knowledge as follows; - Knowledge identification: the reed mat entrepreneurs and those who were interested in weaving reed mat came to learn at the Reed Mat Weaving Learning Center, Moo 9, Prachinburi Province. The learning center was formally established under the purposes in boosting potential for group leaders, cultivating awareness on preservation of local wisdom, passing on various knowledge of reed plant in all aspects to youth and other communities. Workshops on imitation and applying techniques for development of products were organized for learning new knowledge and technology. They covered website creation for product dissemination and access, information board arrangement on production process, income and expenditure board, producing and selling board. Old Local wisdom with design and development on reed mat decoration For the design of modern and beautiful decoration with local identity, the decoration of reed mat was done with fast and convenient. The designing patterns were not too big with the proper, beautiful sizes through Adobe Illustration program. Picture 4: Placing the pictures in the mat design pattern and coloring as you wanted. These were other 12 designing patterns for reed mat weaving: Picture 6: Hearts Picture 7: Overlaid Edges Picture 8: Oval Shapes 147 the Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings Picture 9: Lips Picture 10: Cosmos Flowers Picture 11: Edged Pearl Picture 12: Dragonfly 148 the Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings Picture 13: Spider Picture 14: Peacock Flowers Picture 15: Nave Picture 16: Makey 149 the Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings Picture 17: River the designing pattern process was an academic creation. For the first step, the impression on nature and environment-plants, flowers, and animals- was developed for new decoration design through the use of geometrical shapes for creating mat designs. For the second step, it was an application of old design patterns into new unique and meaningful ones. For the third step, it was making the design-drawing instruments applied from old tools. Chum Yapadit, Chairman of the Reed Mat Enterprise Group, joined hands to plan an activity operation in accordance with the same objectives and opinions. For, the knowledge management on reed mat weaving of the Bang Pluang Sub-district Community, Bansang District, Prachinburi Province, it was found that the establishment of enterprise group was generated from the promotion of both government and private sectors. The old natural decoration of reed mat weaving was developed to be the red and black intertwined stripes and the black and red ones. Also, the techniques on dyeing for Mudmee, kind of Thai silk woven in northeastern Thailand and Takpear, pig tailing, were learnt. Interestingly, this developed local wisdom had been spread out to other interested sub-district communities. Moreover, the creation of innovation based on old local wisdom was done like the reed mat bags in various shapes and other utensils. Such knowledge management radically caused the establishment of the Bang Pluang Reed Mat Enterprise Group, a community learning center for local people and students. Not only they took that opportunity to show and advertise their community products, but they also had an opportunity to learn from other product and apply them for their own local 150 the Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings materials. Incidentally, knowledge process was an important factor to facilitate organizations or communities for efficient knowledge management. It was obviously found that the management knowledge of the reed mat enterprise group consisted of 7 processes: knowledge identification, knowledge organization, knowledge organization, knowledge codification and refinement, knowledge access, knowledge sharing and learning. As it was earlier explained on the concept of knowledge management, the group members could enhance and exchange knowledge and experiences. It made their reed mat products wellknown and it brought satisfied incomes for them. Design and decoration development for reed mat: It was found that members of the reed mat enterprise group in Bang Pluang Sub-district, Bansang District, Prachinburi Provincehad been passed down the old patterns of reed mat weaving from their ancestors. Afterwards, it was developed for chain design, three-stripe design, and eel design. Concerning creating of design patterns and natural patterns of decoration, they virtually were an inspiration for mat decoration patterns. Anyway, the decoration patterns originally were created by the members of the enterprise group was only the simple ones. Later on, when the opportunities were permitted for them to be trained by the provincial public sectors through workshops and study trips; their designing patterns were complicatedly developed. However, the development for new design patterns was very important to add values for products in the age of high commercial competition. For lifting upthe local wisdom, the researcher used the concept of natural decoration patterns-plants, animals, and geometrical shapes- through Adobe Illustrator Computer Program for creating mat design tables. For names of designing patterns, the researcher considered from the shapes that they similarly looked like. Initially, names of design patterns would be considered from similarity, weaving, complication, and continuation of the shapes of the design patterns. Also, they could be considered from beauty and natural characteristics of living and nonliving things. The study revealed that the decoration design of the Bang Pluang Reed Mat Enterprise Group in Ban Sang District, Prachinburi, designers should put the first priority to the characteristics of product patterns. Due to the fact that the product patterns were a space indicator for decoration and weaving process. Generally, mat products were likely board and could be shown with big decoration patterns. Whereas, other products like bags, dish 151 the Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2016 Official Conference Proceedings mats, saucers, briefcases, tissue boxes, their spaces for design pattern were narrowly limited. Government sectors should join hands to revive, promote and develop all kinds of the mat enterprise groups in Prachinburi Province and in other areas across Thailand. Also, the study of data collecting, group categorizing, producer directory, raw materials, domestic plantation area, consulting and advice, and workshops were in need for development of reed mat enterprise. Government sectors and local organizations should promote their communities to build up and enlarge connection in community in both same and different profession groups. Researchers should study on researches and develop for guidelines for reed-stripe quality development like durability, standard quality, and more efficiency. Furthermore, to build equipment and other labor-saving devices like the reed mat dyeing machine, the reed-stripe dryer etc. Researchers should study how-to for product design and development to community standard. Researcher should study and conduct researches to find guidelines of the widespread sale promotion for the reed mat weaving enterprise groups to new target groups. Acknowledgement the researcher would like to express my deepest gratitude to Rajabhat Rajanagarindra University who sponsored this present research to develop the body of academic knowledge. SuaChantaboon: A Case Study on Cultural-anthropological Approach in Ban Sangsakao Village, Leam Singh District. Increasing Added Values on Reed Mats for Community Economy in Kratumpreaw Sub-district, Bansang District, Prachinburi Province. The scores in both subject of Health and Physical Education and Thai language, were at balanced levels. In regarding to the Radar Chart, the lowest score that needed for an improvement was the English language for both grades 6 and 9. The basic education core curriculum also allowed opportunities for further amplification to the regions and schools to play a role in developing the curriculum accordingly to National Education Act of 1999. However, many researches revealed that the quality of students concerning with an acquisition of essential knowledge, skills, capacity and desirable characteristics and attributes were quite disconcerting. Consequently, in 2008, the Basic Education Core curriculum was developed accordingly to the data and information provided in the Tenth National Economic and Social Development Plan, by focusing on preparing Thai children and youths to be ready for the 21st century.
The trade in breast cancer outfits generic capecitabine 500mg amex, and price of breast cancer org 500 mg capecitabine sale, two different commodities (food and biofuel) are therefore connected in an important pregnancy halloween costumes buy 500mg capecitabine fast delivery, but poorly understood manner women's health clinic quivira discount capecitabine 500 mg with mastercard. Subsequent work that used the same model women's health clinic ballarat discount capecitabine 500 mg visa, focused on the effects of model assumptions and showed that this estimate may be too high by as much as two-thirds (Dumortier et al womens health 4 week diet plan capecitabine 500 mg generic. In both cases, model structure and parameter uncertainties untested by sensitivity analyses (Meyfroidt et al. A systematic review of 121 studies on the effect of biofuel demand on agricultural commodity prices show that there is unequivocal evidence that increased demand for biofuels lead to higher agricultural commodity prices, but there remains large uncertainty on the exact magnitude of the effect due to data limitations and modelling assumptions (Ahlgren & Di Lucia, 2014; Persson, 2015). In addition, even if the correct policy contexts are captured in these models, the extent and effectiveness of policy enforcement remains a significant source of variation. Biofuel energy penetration in conventional energy markets remain low, but given the opportunities for smaller, distributed biofuel plants in developing countries and the associated benefits to human well-being, there is an urgency to improve indirect land-use effects in economic models (Persson, 2015). Earlier work on the same topic had less comprehensive answers on the relative merits of different land-use options, but did emphasize that the only long-term solutions are carbon-free fuel technologies (Righelato & Spracklen, 2007). In conclusion, there is high agreement that biofuels increase agricultural commodity prices, but there is limited robust evidence due to the complex nature of the models, policy enforcement uncertainty, the lack of data on supply and demand elasticity in developing countries, and the lack of data on land markers and their drivers (Persson, 2015). The benefits related to an adequate supply of high quality water provided by freshwater ecosystems. As a result of the tight linkages between land management and the water cycle, practices that degrade lands reduce water supplies, both in terms of quantity and quality. Water and sanitation are a cornerstone of sustainable development, providing the societal benefits of adequate freshwater supplies for drinking water, waste disposal, irrigation, food production and supplies (crops, fisheries), cooling water for energy generation, and cultural and spiritual services (Gain et al. Development places increasing demands on water use, quality and availability, impacting its use and governance, leaving less freshwater available to meet the environmental flows needed to support the biodiversity and services that ecosystems provide. Considerable progress has been made in providing access to drinking water, rising from 76% of the global population with access to an improved drinking water source in 1990, to 91% in 2015 (Figure 5. The use of improved sanitation facilities increased from 59% globally in 2000 to 68% in 2015, leaving 2. By contrast, water scarcity is a function of supply that is either demand driven (the ratio of demand to availability) or population driven (per capita availability of renewable freshwater). Alterations to the water cycle are related to the drivers that limit water availability and use, including the loss of natural vegetation cover and/or vegetative biodiversity. This leads to erosion and soil loss, a reduction in natural filtration processes, and the loss of soil organic matter (that can prevent soil crusting and compaction), reducing infiltration and soil water storage capacity (Bossio et al. Expanding agricultural and urban land uses, climate change, population growth, and salinization and chemical contamination are drivers that impact the availability of adequate clean water; these are exacerbated by economic disparity and poor governance (Gain et al. Global water security index scores, based on indicators derived from Sustainable Development Goal 6, including measures of water availability, accessibility to services, safety, quality, and management, indicate low water security index scores for large regions of Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East (Figure 5. Engineering solutions to replace the ecosystem services that maintain water supplies are effective but expensive, and often rely on the input of fossil fuels (Cech, 2010; Palmer, 2010). Reliance on technology to overcome water issues does not address the underlying stressors, but may produce both false security in industrialized countries and chronic water issues (water insecurity) in developing regions. This calls for prudent water management policies with a focus on effectively valuing water and boosting efficiency to achieve the outcomes of universal access to safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and hygiene, improved water quality, enhanced adaption to climate change and improved ecosystem protection. Twothirds of the global population face severe water scarcity at least 1 month per year, half of whom live in Asia (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2016). Agricultural production contributes an estimated 92% to the total footprint, a substantial portion (~20%) of which supports production for export to other countries, or virtual water flow (the water flow embodied in food and other commodities). This allows water poor regions to support larger human populations by importing water intensive crops, preserving local water resources. While water withdrawals vary greatly by region, demands on water supplies in all sectors is increasing, with agriculture accounting for nearly 70% of global water withdrawals, and over 85% of consumptive water use (Doll & Siebert, 2002; Foley et al. Ultimately, water security is a prerequisite for food security, and the water requirements for increasing production to feed an estimated 9 billion people by 2050 will increasingly stress supplies. Irrigation has increased crop yields: irrigated cereal yields, for example, are 60% higher than non-irrigated yields (Rosegrant et al. Regional maps show areas of water security threat are that are coincident with intensive agriculture and high population density. Source: Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: [global threats to human water security and river biodiversity] (C. Land-cover change and degradation, especially deforestation and wetland drainage, have a direct impact on the availability of freshwater supplies. Globally, cropland and pastureland have increased by 460% and 560% respectively, over the past 300 years (Goldewijk, 2001). Conversion of wetlands to agricultural and urban land uses has been extensive, with losses ranging between 54-57% (but regionally as high as 87-90%, for. The figure prepared by Task Group on Indicators and Knowledge and Data Technical Support Unit. Countries shown in green are net virtual water exporters; those in yellow and red import virtual water. Agricultural drainage eliminates wetlands and riparian zones, reducing regional surface water stores and diminishing water yields, with impacts to flows need to sustain ecosystems and large, negative effects on downstream water quality (Schilling et al. Because hydrology determines the location, and structural and functional properties of wetlands, agricultural expansion has caused enormous losses of wetland area, and diminished the ecosystem services provided by those that remain, such as reduction in flood peaks and carbon sequestration and storage (Zedler, 2003). Mining leads to a complex set of processes that degrade land, involving deforestation, river bank destruction, water pollution, and human health effects, all driven by increasing gold prices. A link has also been found between the occurrence of malaria and past exposure to mercury in gold mining, either through water or in fish consumption (Buytaert & Breuer, 2013; Crompton et al. Urbanization intensifies demands for water and sanitation, with the result that there are currently 150 million people living where water supplies do not meet demands. Climate change is expected to increase water shortages for an estimated additional 100 million urban dwellers by 2050 (Mcdonald et al. Diversion of water from agriculture to urban areas can decrease agricultural productivity and the need to bring water from distant sources can create conflicts between users (Reisner, 1993). High population densities, large areas with impervious surfaces, and soil degradation result in the loss of natural water purification processes and reduced water quality. Problems with water infrastructure and waste disposal within cities, particularly in slums, can also cause problems of contamination. This has caused outbreaks of diseases such as cholera or typhoid in some large cities in the tropics (Eisenstein, 2014). The recent emergence of the Zika virus and its outbreak in Brazil is linked to its introduction to urban centres. Work is ongoing in Brazil to improve drinking water supplies to protect the health of the urban poor (Eisenstein, 2014). Degraded and polluted water supplies are more likely to contain pathogens that can lead to diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. While contamination by faecal and organic pollution has decreased in many regions due to infrastructural improvements, it has increased in severity in many developing countries, particularly in areas where urbanization is rapid. In industrialized countries health issues related to pharmaceuticals and personal care products in water supplies are seen as an emerging threat to human health (Evgenidou et al. There is strong evidence that investments in water security are directly correlated with jobs and economic growth. It is estimated that the jobs of half of the global workforce rely on eight water-dependent industries: agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, manufacturing, recycling, building and 5. Pollutants and poor water quality reduce the utility of drinking water, reduce the provision of fish and other food supplies, and when water becomes salinized, limits irrigation. Globally, hydrological modifications (dam building, river and stream channelization, drainage creation of impervious services, and the conversion of wetlands) have caused some of the largest declines in the water quality, biodiversity, and the contributions to human quality of life that freshwater systems provide (Palmer, 2010). Nutrient and sediment runoff associated with agricultural use leads to eutrophication of inland and coastal waters, harmful algal blooms and coastal hypoxic or "dead zones," which impacts to fisheries, recreational services, and so regional economies (Bennett et al. This can limit the use of water for human consumption due to algal blooms, including blooms of cyanobacteria that release microcystin, a potent liver toxin (Brooks et al. Intensive agriculture can also lead to high concentrations of compounds such as nitrate, the cause of methemoglobinemia in infants, and some pesticides that are considered estrogen mimics that may cause developmental issues in humans and other species. Freshwater wetlands, rivers, and lakes have long been essential sources of food production such as fish, rice and waterfowl. Human water demands associated with land-cover change, water withdrawals, diversions, drainage, and increasingly climate change, contribute to the decline in the ecosystem goods and services, limiting food security and overall economic development (Horwitz et al. Restoration approaches vary with the stressors and types of degradation that freshwaters have sustained. In agricultural lands, wetlands and riparian zones can be strategically replaced in the landscape (Mitsch et al. While there is strong evidence for the effects of deforestation on waters, much of the understanding about anticipated improvements that might result from restoration are inferred by the cost of land degradation. For example, maintaining the cover of temperate forests in South America provided water with an economic value of $5. In Mumbai, India it is estimated that for every one percent decrease in forest cover, turbidity increases by 8. Payment for ecosystems services can incentivize landowners to undertake reforestation and promote water security (Lamb et al. Wetlands serve an important role in nutrient management and flow regulation at the landscape scale, and their restoration can mitigate downstream flooding and improve water quality by capturing and processing diffuse runoff (Fennessy & Craft, 2011). Prioritizing wetland restoration in agricultural watersheds to reduce the runoff of agricultural chemicals can benefit downstream waters (Comin et al. For instance, restoring wetlands to cover 10 percent of the Mississippi River Watershed could reduce nitrogen loads to the Gulf of Mexico by an estimated 40 percent, improving hypoxia in the Gulf and protecting fisheries (Mitsch et al. Forest cover also regulates stream temperatures and provides much of the leaf material used by instream biota, protecting fishery sustainability. Overall, success in restoring the structure and functions of lost wetlands is mixed. A global meta-analysis of 621 sites indicated that, even 100 years post-restoration, biodiversity and biogeochemical functions (related to soil carbon storage) were 26% and 23% lower than in unimpacted natural wetlands (Moreno-Mateos et al. Although urban areas are not candidates for restoration to some historical, pre-disturbance reference condition, multiple strategies have developed to increase quality of life. This "green/blue" space is made up of natural and human modified structures such as green walls and roofs, eco-bridges and corridors, and constructed wetlands, or features such as porous pavements that increase water infiltration and decrease stormwater runoff. Wetlands are increasingly preserved and restored in urban and periurban areas to mitigate flood and climate risks, support food production and provide for recreation (McInnes, 2013). China has created a series of wetland parks through the restoration of degraded rivers and ditches to capture storm runoff and remove pollutants, support biodiversity and provide a place to experience nature (Li et al. The creation of green infrastructure has important direct effects to human well-being, although it is often in short supply (Bertram & Rehdanz, 2015). In this section, we turn to the non-material aspects of human well-being that are impacted by land degradation and restoration. These nature-linked aspects of well-being are less tangible; however, they enable individuals to feel more fulfilled and allow cultures to thrive with a connection to place. To guide our assessment of these non-material impacts, we use the concept of "sense of place" as a unifying theme. This concept refers to the emotional bond between a person and location that has been shown to form the basis for cultural connections to land and place, particularly in traditional societies (Windsor & McVey, 2005). Below, we begin by looking at the connection between nature and individuals before turning to a broader assessment of the importance of nature in creating cultural identity, especially for traditional societies. Non-material connections to nature help to shape, define, and give meaning to human existence. To assess them requires acknowledging and evaluating ways in which ecosystem services contribute to a good quality of life that may not be numerically measured. Thus, in our discussion below we strive to take into account the different ways people conceive of their relationship with nature, while also discussing the challenges that come with attempting to quantify the non-material contributions of nature to humans. What emerges from our assessment below is that: (i) ongoing land degradation is having as significant or more significant of an impact on cultural diversity as ongoing anthropogenic climate change (Adger et al. The concept of place has a long history and may be simply defined as the emotional tie between an individual and location. In contrast, defining the concept of sense of place is more difficult and has been referred over the years by various fields as "place attachment", "settlement identity", "homelands", or "landscape of home", for example (Windsor & McVey, 2005). Regardless of the definition, it is clear from the literature that sense of place provides a "sense of security to individuals and groups" as well as "sense of control over their own fate" (Steele, 1981 via Windsor & McVey, 2005). To a large extent, the focus of much of the work looking at how land degradation effects can create loss of place has focused on urbanization in areas inhabited by people of European descent (Hewitt, 1983; Kunstler, 1994; Miller, 2005; Read, 1998; Relph, 2008; Rowley & Wood, 1985). In addition, there has been some work looking at how restoration of nature areas nearby urban environments can help residents reconnect with nature (Miller, 2006). With regards to loss of sense of place due to land degradation, a smaller yet still significant literature exists documenting the pronounced loss of place that land degradation drives (Windsor & McVey, 2005). Overall, the literature is clear that land degradation has a long-lasting, pronounced, and substantial negative impact on the well-being of individuals living in these landscapes through loss of sense of place. In addition to the emotional ties to nature that derive from a sense of place, many individuals have reported perceptions of belonging, spiritual fulfilment, or a sense of something greater when experiencing nature (Calvet-Mir et al. This relationship is likely to exist for many cultures but has yet to be well-documented outside of a limited number of relatively wealthier countries. Importantly, degradation of nature has been shown to lead to emotional or spiritual harm to individuals with their feeling of attachment to nature places disrupted by degradation of natural ecosystems (Willox et al. The survey polls people across the globe on their beliefs, values, and motivations on a diversity of topics, including religion and the environment. Results of the survey show that more religious people are more likely to say that looking after the environment is something important to them. However, when the question was phrased as a trade-off between the economy and the environment, less religious people put a slightly higher priority on environmental protection as compared to economic growth.
This means preventing new invasions and controlling newly emerging invasive species through measures such as: (i) increasing inspections at borders and ports pregnancy 13 weeks buy capecitabine 500mg low cost. Reactive policies women's health issues bleeding cheap 500 mg capecitabine with amex, as they focus on already established species menopause changes generic 500 mg capecitabine amex, tend to be more common than proactive policies breast cancer tee shirts discount 500 mg capecitabine free shipping. Despite more resources menstrual yearly calendar purchase 500 mg capecitabine otc, few high-income countries have proactive capacities pregnancy itching purchase 500mg capecitabine with visa, although there are more such programs found there than in lower income countries, and very few countries have both types of programs. Unfortunately, shortfalls in response capacities can often correlate with the greatest vulnerability to new invasions. For low-income countries, future invasion risk is expected to increase as tourism and outward migration increase air traffic, shifting the main introduction points from seaports to airports, and to increase with the growth of economic activities. Climate change will also affect invasion patterns, as some habitats will become less suitable for a given species while at the same time, may become more suitable for others (Blumenthal, 2005). Increased rainfall variability, predicted to increase in many dryland regions, will likely favour invasive annuals over native perennial plants (Grime, 1979). Increases in human population will lead to more soil surface disturbance, as need for food, energy, mineral, and infrastructure increases, and an increase in global trade, and these factors are expected to increase the numbers of invasive plants and animals. Therefore, with the overall growth of human population and activity, it will be necessary to control the introduction and establishment of invasive species, as their eradication is generally much more difficult once they are established. Trade is a major driver of invasion threat in higher income countries, with North America hosting by far the largest number of non-native plant species, followed by Europe and Australia. Sub-continents that had very similar values for introduction factors were grouped. Global introduction pressure (3A) is a composite analysis of projected biome shifts, increased agricultural intensity and fire frequency between 2000-2100; airport and seaport capacity and animal; plant, and total imports to illustrate likely invasion threat. Values were calculated using the highest value of the constituent factors within each grid cell. Data were extracted from the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics database (Comtrade, 2010). Within each country it was assumed that alien species introductions would be greatest at the locations where human population density was highest, and so import value was distributed according to human population density within each country. Intercontinental airport capacity (F) shown as estimated number of passengers arriving from intercontinental journeys at all airports located in cities with populations greater than 100,000 in 2010, where the airport is their final flight destination. Passengers are assumed to transport alien species to the population areas surrounding airports (Huang et al. Change in airport capacity (G) shown as the total (international and domestic) air carrier traffic in a country in each year. Seaport capacity (H) shown as cargo traffic (port volume data, in metric tons) into each port listed in the World Port Index compiled in 2003 (Halpern et al. Change in seaport capacity (I) shown as container traffic into each port measured by Twenty foot Equivalent Units(World Bank, 2016). In addition, fertilizer use, fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning have more than doubled the amount of reactive nitrogen (N), and significantly increased the amount of phosphorous (P) cycling through the Earth system (Vitousek et al. Climatic changes are also of particular concern because of their role in shaping the extent, severity and frequency of occurrence of other degradation drivers, with effects that in turn feedback to influence potential future climate. Temperature changes can also affect ecosystem service provisioning by altering the structure and architecture of ecological communities. In addition, warmer temperatures can also directly drive land degradation by affecting physical processes (also see Chapter 4, Section 4. Permafrost degradation and glacier retreat, as a result of warmer temperatures, can alter soil drainage and hydrology, destabilize slopes and cause mass movements such as landslides, mudflows and glacier floods, changing habitat for wildlife and vegetation, damaging infrastructure and posing threats to human life (also see Chapter 4, Section 4. Future temperature increase is also likely to threaten food security by negatively affecting crop yields and exposing livestock to increased thermal stress, which can reduce livestock productivity and reproductive rates (Howden et al. In addition to directional changes in temperature, increased inter-annual temperature variability, which has been documented in some regions such as Western Europe (Alexander & Perkins, 2013), is also a major cause for concern as it can have significant effects on a variety of ecological processes (Stenseth et al. Even under conservative scenarios temperatures are projected to rise further, with temperatures at the end of the 21st century likely to be 1. Because species differ in their physiological, phenological and demographic responses to temperature changes, and in their ability to move and migrate to track suitable climate, this can result in spatial and temporal mismatches between interacting species and the disruption of key existing ecological interactions. Climate change has been implicated as a driver of some past species extinctions (Pounds et al. Although modelling approaches have methodological limitations, and do not always adequately account for species interactions and the multiple responses of species to climate change, the majority of available models nevertheless indicate that many species are likely to decline and face increased extinction risks in the future due to climate change (Bellard et al. For example, based on projected future range distributions for over 1100 plant and animal species, Thomas et al. Consistent declines in rainfall over time can reduce vegetation productivity and biomass in sites (Barbosa et al. Even where total rainfall remains unchanged, changes in rainfall climatology towards more frequent but less intense rainfall events, can result in increased tree cover (and vice versa) in these systems by altering the balance between water run-off and infiltration into soils (Good & Caylor, 2011). Woody tree and shrub encroachment can lead to degradation in grasslands and savannahs by reducing grazing potential, livestock carrying capacity and yields (Archer, 2009; Eldridge et al. In addition to directional changes in mean rainfall, interand intra-annual variability in rainfall can also have important consequences for ecological processes (Stenseth et al. Although episodic tree mortality can occur due to natural causes, observations of large-scale mortality from regions receiving less than 400 mm to environments that receive more than 3000 mm rainfall per year and are not normally considered water limited, suggests a common global driver, and is consistent with climate-change induced forest mortality and dieback driven by drought and heat stress (Allen et al. Such die-offs can have substantial impacts on both market and non-market values of forests including timber and non-timber resource production, carbon sequestration, water quality regulation, cultural services and aesthetic values (Allen et al. Concurrently, humans have also drastically transformed global nitrogen and phosphorous cycles through the production of synthetic fertilizers, expansion of nitrogen-fixing crops and the mining of phosphorous compounds (Elser & Bennett, 2011; Falkowski, 2000; Fowler et al. The fixation of nitrogen through the Haber-Bosch process is now double that from natural sources (120 Tg N yr-1 vs 63 Tg N yr-1 as of 2010) (Fowler et al. Shrub and woody plant encroachment has been widely reported from arid and semi-arid grasslands and savannahs across the globe in recent decades (Archer, 175 3. Extreme rain events render areas vulnerable to floods and landslides, while high winds and dust storms can erode top soil, damage crops and infrastructure, reduce air quality and even disrupt transport networks (Michener et al. Similarly, severe droughts can lower crop productivity, reduce water availability for humans, livestock and wildlife, lead to the loss of biodiversity, depress plant performance and survival even in arid and semi-arid systems, and make forests more susceptible to die-offs (Allen, 2009; Allen et al. At present, there are several documented instances of enhanced tree mortality throughout the globe, from modest increases above background rates to regional scale forest die-offs, with a marked increase in documented events since the 2000s (Adams et al. C4 photosynthesis is most common amongst tropical grasses, including staple crops such as maize, sorghum and millet. Around 95% of the plant species in the world are C3 plants, and include trees, shrubs, forbs and grasses. Although the underlying causes for woody plant encroachment are varied and debated, and include changes in land-use, resource extraction, grazing, browsing and fire regimes (Archer, 2010; Eldridge et al. In addition to reducing livestock production potential, shrub encroachment can also impact native biodiversity, ecosystem hydrology and nutrient cycling (Archer, 2010; Eldridge et al. In conservation areas, shrub encroachment can impact visitor numbers and satisfaction as visibility of animals is reduced, with potentially significant economic consequences (Gray & Bond, 2013). There is also evidence to suggest that increased atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and phosphorus is driving species loss and compositional shifts across a range of different ecosystem types, particularly temperate and northern ecosystems (Bobbink et al. Enhanced nitrogen and phosphorus deposition can alter nutrient cycling patterns, lead to soil acidification and toxicity, and result in eutrophication of water bodies and the lowering of water quality, with potential impacts on the quality and nature of services provided by ecosystems (also see Chapter 4, Section 4. Although information is currently lacking from several eco-regions in eastern and southern Asia, Mediterranean ecoregions in California and southern Europe, and several subtropical and tropical regions of Latin America and Africa, it is likely that most ecosystems are likely to be affected by future anthropogenically-driven changes in nitrogen and phosphorus availability (Bobbink et al. In addition to the effects mentioned above, climate change can also drastically alter ecosystems by inducing wholesale biome shifts. Indeed, long-term field monitoring efforts have revealed several cases of biome shifts in the 20th century in boreal, temperate and tropical ecosystems (Penuelas & Boada, 2003; Gonzalez et al. Model predictions suggest that one-tenth to nearly one-half of the global land surface may be highly (confidence 0. Risks associated with future climate change include both the disappearance of extant climates, as well as the creation of novel climates for which there are no current analogues (Garcia et al. Disappearing climates are likely to be concentrated in tropical montane regions and the poleward portions of continents, while tropical and subtropical regions are likely to witness novel climates in the future (Garcia et al. Such biome shifts, where they occur, can alter both the extent and kinds of services provided by these ecosystems, with the potential to influence more than a billion people who currently live in these regions (Gonzalez et al. Climate change as a threat multiplier the greatest threat of future climate change arises perhaps not from its role as a direct driver of degradation, but rather from its ability to act as a threat multiplier for other degradation drivers, both by exacerbating the effects of other land degradation drivers, as well as by altering the frequency, intensity, extent and timing of events such as fires, pest and pathogen outbreaks, and species invasions (Allen et al. Land degradation can increase the sensitivity of systems to climatic changes and extreme events, and reduce the effectiveness of adaptation options (Gisladottir & Stocking, 2005; Webb et al. Future warmer temperatures and drought, in addition to acting as major direct stressors for trees, can also render them more susceptible to attack by insect pests and pathogens (Raffa et al. At the same time, warmer temperatures can also have a direct effect on the insect pests themselves by reducing generation times, increasing over-winter survival, and allowing pests to expand their ranges into previously unsuitable habitat, thus favouring insect outbreaks (Raffa et al. Although underlying mechanisms are complex, such interactive effects are believed to be responsible for the bark beetle outbreaks in North America in recent decades, where millions of hectares of conifer forests have been killed from Mexico to Alaska (Figure 3. It is estimated that the coffee berry borer shifted its elevation range upwards by 300 m over a 10 year period in Tanzania, and is now present at altitudes greater than 1800 m in East Africa (Jaramillo et al. Model forecasts suggest that even a 1-2oC increase in temperatures can worsen infestations by the berry borer in Coffea Arabica producing areas of Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, the Ugandan part of Lake Victoria, Mt. Because of the strong linkages between climate and fire, climatic changes can have significant effects on fire regimes, the signals of which are already becoming apparent. Increases in fire season length can also reduce the time available for prescribed burning as a fire management tool. Modelling results also suggest that projected future climate changes are likely to have substantial effects on fire regimes over vast portions of the globe during the 21st century (Moritz et al. Although major uncertainties in the projections remain, patterns are likely to be spatially variable across the globe with increasing fire probabilities in the mid- to high-latitudes and decreasing fire probabilities in the tropics (Moritz et al. Additionally, climatic effects on fire regimes in the future can be further exacerbated when coupled with climate-induced forest dieback, pest outbreaks and other anthropogenic degradation drivers such as deforestation. Such disturbances increase litter and woody debris, and alter microclimatic and fuel conditions and can thus influence subsequent fire risk (Anderegg et al. Climate change can also alter the distribution, spread, abundance and impact of invasive species by influencing processes at all stages of the invasion pathway from introduction to establishment (Hellmann et al. These include changes in the mechanism of transport and introduction of invasive species, changes in the climatic constraints faced by invasive species, alterations in the distributions of existing invasive species and alterations in the impacts of invasive species (Hellmann et al. Changes in average annual temperatures between 1900 and 2005 have been shown to be significantly correlated with establishment rates of invasive alien insects across multiple continents, even after accounting for other factors such as increase in international trade during the time period, with a 1oC increase in temperature increasing establishment rates by 0. Although our understanding of climate change impacts on invasive species is far from complete (Hellmann et al. Ultimately, the nature and severity of climate change impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem processes, and the importance of climate change as a degradation driver is likely to be spatially variable across the globe, contingent on the extent to which climatic variables change locally, with some combinations of climate change factors multiplying, and others offsetting, the impacts of different degradation drivers. The net effects will depend not only on the extent and velocity of change in average climates, but also on the probability of occurrence and magnitude of extreme climatic events (Garcia et al. Further, different ecosystems are likely to vary in their sensitivities to current and future climatic variability (Seddon et al. Understanding the underlying mechanisms and quantifying ecosystem responses to climatic change remains a challenge, but is critical for developing appropriate tools and technologies to combat and deal with land degradation in the future. As such, measures to avoid or mitigate land degradation are preferable and are often more cost-effective than restoring land once degraded (Liniger & Critchley, 2007; Turner et al. However, restoring degraded landscapes is often necessary, and it is estimated that between 1 and 1. In addition, restoration of degraded land is also needed to reduce the pressure to clear remaining areas of native vegetation (Lataweic et al. Avoiding or mitigating degradation requires both the development of sustainable land management practices and their application through institutional and legal measures. If prevention measures fail, then active measures to restore degraded land may be needed. However, restoration is generally very difficult, regardless of ecosystem type, and is often cost-prohibitive (Liniger & Critchley, 2007). Because restoration requires the consideration of multiple factors and institutional capacities that are site-specific, there is no overarching decision support tool available (see Chapter 8). In order for restoration to be successful, a thorough analysis of available local knowledge and published information is needed to identify the costs and benefits of different options (see Chapter 8, Section 8. In addition, the development of an evaluation framework is needed to understand the relative importance of different indirect and direct drivers, identify priority actions and define restoration goals (Liniger & Critchley, 2007) (see Chapter 6, Section 6. Lastly, the institutions responsible for restoration efforts need to be identified and developed through participatory approaches (Liniger & Critchley, 2007) (see Chapter 8, Sections 8. Successful restoration has occurred where efforts are limited in space and time, and where restoration goals are clearly defined and achievable with the available resources. For instance, many non-native Acacia trees were, and continue to be, planted in African dryland sites. Some of these species, such as Vachellia (Acacia) reficiens, have become highly invasive. Originally planted for fuel and forage, they soon formed impenetrable thickets, restricting livestock and human access. The restoration of invaded areas has been accomplished by removing the degradation driver (here, the planting of trees), avoiding unintended consequences of removing the driver (here, preventing soil erosion by using dead limbs), facilitating restoration goals (here, reseeding desired grass species) and setting achievable restoration targets (here, establishing grass productivity, not necessarily nutrient or carbon cycles). Due to cost and limited resources, such efforts have only been successful at a small local scale.
The actual sequence of changes through a succession is determined by climate and soil type and menstrual every 2 weeks buy cheap capecitabine 500 mg line, in the case of secondary succession menstrual after menopause purchase capecitabine 500 mg on-line, the prior land cover and land use breast cancer stages capecitabine 500 mg online. Secondary successions rarely reach the same climax state as a primary succession womens health yoga 500 mg capecitabine free shipping, and are distinguished by the term "plagio-climax" menstrual tent order 500mg capecitabine overnight delivery. An example is the impacts of cropping in Mongolia which persists for a long time (Venter et al menstrual 9 days late cheap capecitabine 500 mg without a prescription. However, the initial disturbance and any subsequent anthropogenic effects (Meyfroidt et al. To the extent that cessation of the disturbance is not followed by continued progress to the plagio-climax, the land can be considered degraded (see Section 4. For example, some Mediterranean woodland bird and large mammal populations have benefited from largescale land abandonment (Blondel et al. However, abandonment has been found to have mainly negative biodiversity outcomes in Europe and Asia, while positive effects were most common in the Americas (Queiroz et al. Agricultural abandonment has been substantial throughout the 20th century in the Eastern United States, in China, South America and the former Soviet Union (Gutman & Radeloff, 2017), followed by the Western United States, Southern Asia, Europe, Canada, the Pacific developed nations, and Africa (Cramer et al. Land abandonment is projected to continue under different future scenarios (see Section 4. Mineral extraction is a major driver of land disturbance and contamination to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems at multiple levels (de Castro Pena et al. The operational life of a mine consists of several phases, each with specific impacts that can occur in sequence or together and often interact cumulatively. The risks associated with each phase and the severity of degradation and contamination potential to land and water ecosystems are determined by geologic, geographic and environmental factors (Marsden & House, 2006; Zyl et al. The geochemistry and mineralogy of ores, metallurgical methods and chemicals utilized for processing and environmental management systems determine the ecological risks of mining waste effluents releases (see Section 4. The rudimentary nature of most artisanal and small-scale mining practices has severe impacts on the structure and chemistry of soils and riverine systems (Figure 4. Measuring small-scale forest degradation is challenging due to variable footprint scales (from <10 ha to >1000 ha) (Austin, 2002). Owing to its widespread occurrence in often remote and pristine ecosystems, and the absence of environmental management. Waste materials usually account for more than 99% of the volume of rock extracted (Zyl et al. The impacts of environmental releases of hazardous waste materials are often considered the most serious aspect of the extractives industry (Martin et al. Toxic tailings dams are a hazard to local wildlife when not properly maintained (Donato et al. Releases of hazardous tailings and acid mine drainage effluents from rock spoil dumps have occurred on many occasions throughout the world (Caldwell & van Zyl, 2011; Rico et al. An analysis of tailings dam failures in the last three decades indicates that, although the overall number of failures has decreased, the number of serious failures has increased (Azam & Li, 2010). Depending on volume, physical properties and chemical composition of the released material, the resulting impacts can be catastrophic (Fernandes et al. Irreversible effects occur when large volumes of toxic aqueous slurries and sediments are released into aquatic systems after tailings dam bursts. Immediately after these events, water flow, sediment deposition and toxic effects degrade riparian and aquatic ecosystems locally and downstream of the mine site (Fernandes et al. In addition to direct impacts of solid sediments to ecosystem structure, hazardous substances and process chemicals in waste sediments and mine waters have long-term effects on watersheds. Waste type Soils and biomass Mine Phase Characteristics Suppressed vegetation and organic soils (horizon A and B) containing nutrients, seed banks, mycorrhiza and pedo-fauna. Risks to ecosystems If stored improperly, organic materials may emit greenhouse gases during decomposition. Rescued germplasm and soils used for reclamation of pits, quarries and waste disposal facilities. Exploration and extraction Overburden and spoiling rocks Waste dumps Large footprint of sterile dumps. Processing, concentration and recovery Tailings Gangue separated from the valuable minerals and process chemicals. Long term remobilization and transformations of accumulated hazardous substances often create toxicity legacies that may affect both human populations and wildlife for extended periods of time, up to hundreds of kilometres downstream of pollution sources (Guimaraes et al. Prevention and remediation are particularly problematic in the case of transboundary contamination. Although there are no comprehensive reviews of the subject, there have been cases in many parts of the world that have led to international litigation. This growth would cause the loss of almost 65 Tg of crop production, which may require up to 350,000 Km2 of new cropland to replace the lost yield. The share of urban land take in cropland areas is highest in Europe, the MiddleEast, Northern Africa, and China, while it is relatively low in Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 4. Urban agriculture and gardening is an increasing trend, but some of the sites that are being planted were previously used for industrial activities and the soil may contain residual chemicals at a level that could pose health risks. Lead, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are contaminants commonly found in any urban environment (see Section 4. Particularly in richer countries, urban and suburban development has led to high nutrient loads in many streams and rivers due to run off from over-fertilization of lawns and golf-courses, faulty septic systems and cracked sewer pipes. Some regions have high probability of urban expansion in specific locations (1 and 2), and others have extensive, high probabilities of urban growth (3). Direct causes of biodiversity loss include habitat loss, homogenization, fragmentation, heat island effects, environmental pollution and exotic species introductions and invasions (Fan et al. Changes in landscape configuration as a result of urbanization affects the ranges of species and can enhance local extinction through loss of connectivity (Mitchell et al. Some aspects of urbanization cause the loss of species diversity by replacement of the natural biota, while others can promote biodiversity, albeit by the addition of non-native species (McKinney, 2002, 2006) and common weeds. About 65% of studies of plants, 30% of studies of invertebrates and about 12% of non-avian vertebrates found increases in species richness with moderate urbanization (Hope et al. Urban-rural gradient studies show that, for many taxa, the number of non-native species increases toward centres of urbanization, while the number of native species decreases (see Sections 4. Interactions between urbanization and ecosystem service provision are multifaceted. Air quality, local and global climate, flood protection, erosion, pollination and recreation can all be changed (Tardieu et al. At the regional and global scales, ecological processes are affected mostly by atmospheric dispersal of pollutants, but also through water and human transportation. For example, in the urban region in the Yangtze River Delta, net primary production decreased significantly due to urbanization processes from 1999 to 2010. Globally, between 20 and 40 MgC/ha of primary production are forecast to be lost (Figure 4. Urbanization has become one of the main drivers of the threat to global biodiversity. Sustainable urban development, including managing and designing urban biodiversity, is therefore of crucial importance to the future of global biodiversity. Good urban planning and the pattern of urban development can reduce the loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity. To promote urban biodiversity and sustainable urban design, the Urban Biodiversity and Design scientific network was founded (Fan et al. Such has been the pervasive use of the term that the non-specialist might reasonably assume that "ecosystem processes" are well-understood. The truth is otherwise; the "ecosystem" has emerged as an extremely complex system, encompassing parts of many fields of the biological and physical sciences. In the context of this Land Degradation and Restoration Assessment, disciplines such as socioeconomics, environmental politics and human development need to be aware that the basis of their contributions to the Assessment, that is "degradation", its properties, location, severity and trends, is not a finished story in the biophysical realm and new developments are certain to affect our grasp of its human dimensions. Therefore, there is an urgent need for development of appropriate land degradation and restoration indicators and strengthening of existing measurement and monitoring programmes. Measurement and monitoring of some processes, however, is difficult with current capabilities. This is particularly a problem at scales beyond a single farm or small forest at provincial, national, regional and global scales. As a result, the spatial extent, severity and trends in degradation are largely unknown. The technical capability exists to expand measurement of some aspects of degradation, including monitoring the health of ecosystems, as well changes in their areas (see Sections 4. Satellite-based remote sensing remains the principal means to address the extent and severity of degradation, especially at coarser scales but increasingly at scales approaching 1 m. Although, alone, remote sensing will not and cannot, provide all the necessary monitoring, the current phase of rapid development of techniques that use remote sensing is encouraging (Hansen et al. Unfortunately there is a pervasive and alarming trend toward even sparser coverage and even losses of complete environmental and ecological monitoring networks, for example, more than half the global hydrological stations reporting in 1970 were not operating in 2000 (Wahl et al. A lack of stable, long-term commitment to observations, and lack of a clear transition plan from research to operations, are two frequent limitations in the development of adequate responses to land degradation (Hansen et al. This shortage of data is exacerbated by uneven distribution of observation locations. The problem is not unique to poor or developing nations: in many developed countries, long-term monitoring is declining. In addition to this loss of stations, there is an insidious loss of stations having at least 30 years records. These are exactly the stations most needed for detection of trends in the context of climatic change. Clearly, strategies need to be developed and implemented that reverse the declines, fill existing gaps and preserve data with long-records. These issues are illustrated in the case of extensive livestock production (see Section 4. For crop agriculture the opposite occurs, global crop yields have increased despite reports of widespread cropland degradation. In this case it is probable that increased use of fertiliser and improved crop varieties may be the cause, not alleviation of degradation, but the answers to these questions are unknown and unknowable with current data. This section is focussed on the significant obstacles that have to be overcome to improve the current knowledge of the biophysical processes that are at the heart of land degradation. In fact, there is not a single condition, rather there are multiple forms of degradation that reduce ecosystem services: sheet erosion in agricultural fields, water pollution, landscape fragmentation, extinction of species, to name a few, have little in common in their causes by or effects on humans. Furthermore, there is often confusion over what ecosystem conditions are actually the result of anthropogenic degradation (see Section 4. This is a serious consideration and is a critical issue for this assessment (see Section 4. These include land which is naturally less productive or has a naturally lower biodiversity, land which is susceptible to degradation but not actually degraded, and degradation which is entirely natural, caused by environmental changes that reduce ecosystem services with no human driver. In the case of environmental components, there is an urgent need for methods that can reliably decouple impacts of, for example, climate fluctuation from anthropogenic degradation (see Section 4. Current land surface models mostly do not include degraded conditions, and can have both a spatial and temporal resolution that are too coarse for application to small-scale degradation. Examples of key questions for which there are no or only partial answers for many forms of degradation are listed in Table 4. Combined use of observations and modelling To address the functioning, predictability, and projected evolution of the many components of degradation, improved data and its coupling with mathematical models are equally needed (Simmons et al. Furthermore, much of the existing information is suspect, mostly based on dated and hard to verify data (Chomitz, 2006) (see Section 4. How quickly and for how long are ecosystem services perturbed by specific types and durations of disturbance? When is it appropriate to transfer an understanding of biophysical degradation between ecosystems? How do we extrapolate monitoring and evaluation outcomes from one area to another area that has not been monitored? Can we determine ecosystem resilience, thresholds that lead to a major change in ecological functioning and condition, and under what circumstance might these occur? Losses of natural conditions are often assumed to permanently diminish performance, but is there evidence for this? Are global level data products reliable if they are simply the sum of national and regional-level products? What research methods will allow us to use site-scale data to inform large-scale responses? Changes in the spatial properties of ecosystems can often be measured, but how can deleterious changes in species composition in ecosystems be detected. The meteorological community is far in advance of the data resources available for land degradation and restoration. Few accurate measurements of species numbers exist for many groups of organisms owing to difficulty in detection. Many biodiversity surveys use habitat as a predictor of species presence (Franklin, 2009), although clearly this is an approximation since even suitable habitats may be unoccupied. The data that are collected by different agencies frequently use widely different methods, such as national crop export statistics and interpolated field measurements that differ in quality and standards. While the use of data provided by countries themselves is clearly preferable to override by outside agencies, there are pitfalls to "democratization" of data collection. In some cases, this is accomplished by selecting key properties that are themselves affected by contributory factors, including: net primary production which is a result of soil, weather, grazing and other factors; sediment yield which is a consequence of several finer scale erosion factors; a decline in the number of species which reflects aspects of ecosystem degradation; and many others, some for specific purposes. A key, common requirement for these types of indicators is that they are actual ecosystem properties and can, in principle, be measured directly.
