Clinical Scientist, Honorary Fellow in Pediatric Urology,
Institute of Child Health, University College London and
Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United
Kingdom
This is especially interesting with small-animal models since one can look at multiple generations and control the parentage antibiotic nerve damage generic 200mg floxin overnight delivery. In this regard virus vaccine buy floxin 400 mg without a prescription, the rodent research of Panksepp is well-equipped to deal with these issues; his suggestion to using genetic profiling techniques has become very feasible and should be among planned studies on empathy bacteria 2014 buy floxin 200 mg mastercard. It is more difficult to study nature/nurture issues in human populations because there are so many factors involved and one cannot control them; this results in very small effect sizes bacterial resistance 200mg floxin mastercard, requiring vast numbers of subjects for just correlational results oral antibiotics for mild acne 400mg floxin overnight delivery. For human populations triple antibiotic ointment generic floxin 400 mg on line, it is best to look at extreme ends of the continua in order to increase effect sizes, which means studying impaired populations. The work of Tiffany Field exemplifies this research, looking at the emotional concordance and responsivity of normal infants compared to infants at risk for developing an acquired disorder, for example, due to premature birth (Field 1979), respiratory problems (Field et al. In general, research on impaired populations will continue to give insight into the necessary components for normal empathic responses, and into the mechanisms underlying them. Normal human populations are especially amenable to psychophysiological recording that can look at perception-action effects in the autonomic nervous system online. These processes, only in combination, will clarify the important interaction of nature and nurture, as well as the central and peripheral circuits involved in each stage of the processing. Conclusion the commentators agreed overall that it is useful to extend the concept of empathy into ultimate and proximate domains, and to try to link empathy in humans and nonhumans. Recent data support many aspects of the model, and we can start to be more specific about the neural substrates of emotional perception-action processes. Future research, directed more at the role of interdependence, attention, and the interaction between cerebellum and subcortical structures should prove useful in further elucidating the mechanism and the reason for impairments of empathy. We hope the process of empathy has begun to emerge from its state as "a riddle in social psychology" (Allport 1968), as we begin to understand the ultimate and proximate mechanisms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley. In: Primate psychology the mind and behavior of human and nonhuman primates, ed. NeuroReport: An International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience 12:187984. Paper presented at the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness, London, Ontario. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the First International Conference of Social Cognitive Neuroscience, Los Angeles, 2426 April, 2001. In: Comparative socioecology: the behavioural ecology of humans and other mammals, ed. In: Machiavellian Intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans, ed. In: the dynamics of aggression: Biological and social processes in dyads and groups, ed. In: Development of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior, ed. Ciba Foundation Symposium "Physiology, Emotion and Psychosomatic Illness" 8:3 13. An investigation of affect attunement and imitation during the first year of life. In: Evolutionary psychology and violence: A primer for policymakers and public policy advocates, ed. Full revised and expanded proceedings of Johnson & Johnson Pediatric Round Table X, ed. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 25:91524. In: Readings in cognitive science: A perspective from psychology and artificial intelligence, ed. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, Section A: Human Experimental Psychology 37:571 90. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, Section A: Human Experimental Psychology 37:591 612. Applying concepts from the study of non-human primates to the developmental study of "imitation" in children. Evoked emotions while viewing emotionally expressive faces: Quality, quantity, time course and gender differences. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, March 1720. In: the transition from infancy to early childhood: the MacArthur longitudinal twin study, ed. Akinetic mutism (lack of voluntary speech & movement) At least one of the following: 1. Summary · Prion diseases are caused by a misfolded protein and can be transmissible in certain circumstances · There are 3 causes of prion disease: sporadic, genetic, and acquired · Brain tissue allows us to definitely diagnosis prion disease and its type, but clinical tests are often useful in making a diagnosis in the right clinical setting My Lab National Prion Disease Pathology Surveillance Center Thank you! Non-Preferred products are subject to service authorization which requires trial and failure of two preferred products. Patient will be switching from one antiretroviral combination to an alternate product with the same active ingredient. 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References Requests for continuing therapy that were approved by a previous Health Plan will be honored for at least 30 days upon receipt of documentation demonstrating that approval. Botulinum toxin type A as prophylactic treatment of episodic migraine headache: A randomized, placebo controlled, exploratory trial. Botulinum toxin type A and divalproex sodium for prophylactic treatment of episodic or chronic migraine. Treatment of recurrent dislocation of the temporomandibular joint with type A botulinum toxin. The use of botulinum toxin for the treatment of temporomandibular disorders: preliminary findings. Palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis treated with botulinum toxin: one-year clinical follow-up. Randomized controlled trial of botulinum toxin A for chronic myogenous orofacial pain. 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Chenodiol (chenodeoxycholic acid) for dissolution of gallstones: the National Cooperative Gallstone Study. Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis: a family of sterol 27-hydroxylase mutations and pharmacotherapy. Rheumatoid Arthritis: o Prescribed by a rheumatologist o Clinically diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis. Note: Cimzia (certolizumab pegol) has a black box warning related to the increased risk of developing serious infections that could result in hospitalization or death. Individuals should be closely monitored for the development of infection during and after treatment with discontinuation of therapy if the individual develops a serious infection or sepsis. Reported infections include: Tuberculosis, invasive fungal infections (including histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, candidiasis, aspergillosis, blastomycosis, and pneumocystosis), and infections (bacterial, viral, or other) due to opportunistic pathogens (including Legionella and Listeria). 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We suggest that these "as if" simulation mechanisms may subsume a wide range of processes as diverse as action perception and imitation (as simulation of the observed action; see Gallese 2000a; 2000b; 2001; see also Rizzolatti et al antibiotic resistance issues generic 400 mg floxin mastercard. Is there a further level of description that can provide a common and coherent explanatory frame for all these different simulation mechanisms? We propose antibiotics for acne problems discount floxin 200 mg visa, yes: such a level could be represented by the neural matching system constituted by mirror neurons (Gallese et al antibiotic eye drops otc 400 mg floxin. Mirror neurons could underpin a direct antibiotics listed by strength generic 200mg floxin with visa, automatic virus mp3 purchase 400mg floxin, nonpredicative treatment for frequent uti cheap floxin 400 mg mastercard, and noninferential simulation mechanism, by means of which the observer would be able to recognize, understand, and imitate the behavior of others. However, if an action-perception matching is crucial for the production of empathy, as the authors suggest, mirror neurons represent the most parsimonious neural system so far described, enabling such a matching to occur. The trick here is not to confound the phenomenal aspect of behavior, its functional level of description, and the neural mechanism at its base. Preliminary results suggest that a mirror matching system could be at the basis of our capacity to perceive in a meaningful way, not only the actions, but also the sensations and the emotions of others (see Gallese 2001). Single neuron recording experiments in humans have demonstrated that the same neurons become active when the subject either feels pain or observes others feeling pain (Hutchison et al. In conclusion, these recent findings suggest that a neural matching system is present also in a variety of apparently nonmotor-related human brain structures. Thus, different simulation mechanisms are applied in different domains, being sustained by a mirror-matching, dual-mode of operation (action-driven and perception-driven) of given brain structures. We propose that such simulation mechanisms may constitute altogether a shared manifold of intersubjectivity (see Gallese 2001). Cognitive empathy presupposes self-awareness: Evidence from phylogeny, ontogeny, neuropsychology, and mental illness Gordon G. Platek Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, steven platek@yahoo. Evidence is brought to bear on this proposition from comparative psychology, early child development, neuropsychology, and abnormal behavior. The subcategory of empathy that Preston & de Waal (P&deW) identify as cognitive empathy represents an instance of a more general phenomenon known as mental state attribution. Twenty years ago a model was formulated that stipulates self-awareness as a necessary condition for making inferences about mental states in others (Gallup 1982). According to the model, inferential knowledge of mental states in others builds on a knowledge of mental states in oneself. Because humans share similar receptor mechanisms and brains that are organized in roughly the same way, there is bound to be considerable overlap between their experiences. Moreover, people that have access to their own mental states and take note of their relationship to various external events, have a means of making inferences about mental states in others. Knowledge of self, in other words, paves the way for achieving an inferential knowledge of cognitive states in others. Since the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror varies as a function of species, age, neurological status, and mental illness (Gallup et al. According to the model, variation in mirror self-recognition ought to predict comparable variation in the ability to take into account how others feel, and variation in being able to accurately infer what they want, know, or intend to do. In instances in which selfrecognition is deficient or absent, there should be a corresponding deficiency or absence of mental state attribution. Thus, whereas chimpanzees that recognize themselves in mirrors show evidence of cognitive empathy (Povinelli et al. Monkeys seem incapable of taking into account what other monkeys may or may not know, want, or intend to do. People who are incapable of recognizing themselves in mirrors are typically unable to make inferences about mental states in other people. For instance, it is only after children learn to recognize themselves in mirrors (usually between 18 and 24 months of age) that they begin to show evidence of being able to take into account what other people are seeing or feeling. Likewise, the emergence of prosocial and altruistic behaviors in children is related to the age at which they show self-recognition (Johnson 1982). Patients who are incapable of identifying their own faces often have damage to the right prefrontal cortex. Breen (1999) described a patient with damage restricted to the right prefrontal cortex that could recognize other people in a mirror, but insisted that his own reflection was someone else. Keenan and Wheeler (in press) summarize a number of neuropsychological studies which show both right hemispheric lateralization and localization of self-recognition in the prefrontal cortex. As support for the proposition that mirror self-recognition is a valid index of self-awareness, it is important to note that selfevaluation and autobiographical memories are also localized in the right prefrontal cortex (see Keenan et al. Consistent with the model, the same part of the brain that is important for self-recognition also appears to be crucial for mental state attribution. Deficits in mirror self-recognition are also characteristic of a number of psychological disorders (Gallup et al. Schizophrenics often react to themselves in mirrors as though they were seeing other people (Harrington et al. Similarly, people who score high on measures of schizotypal personality show impairments in self-face recognition (Platek & Gallup 2002). Mirror self-recognition is developmentally delayed and sometimes even absent in children suffering from autism (Spiker & Ricks 1984), and autistic children are impaired in their ability to take into account what other people are thinking (Baron-Cohen 2000). Thus, the model that stipulates self-awareness as a necessary condition for mental state attribution has been subject to considerable convergent validation. The underlying network that integrates these processes would also appear to be responsible for cognitive empathy. One of the reasons why the theory has been attractive to neuroscientists is precisely that it sketches a plausible way for automatic (perception-action and perception-emotion) mechanisms to work together with high-level cognitive processes. The decision must now be integrated with a broader simulation of B, to generate possible reasons for grasping and removing the cup that is, reasons suitable to B at the time of action. It requires less of an imaginative stretch for an agent A to take the role of another agent B in imagination (or overtly, as in stage-acting) if B is similar to A, or in certain respects closely related. This would seem to rule out empathetic responses to memories, fantasies, and verbal accounts, unless the concept of contagion extends to these. Here I follow the tradition in cognitive science of using the term "cognitive" to cover states and processes that implement any person-level intentional states and processes, be they conative, emotional, or cognitive in a narrow sense. The simulation theory does a better job of explaining how automatic "mirroring" mechanisms might work together with high-level cognitive processes. The target article brings together a variety of interesting studies the authors believe to be convergent. I agree that the studies converge, but I do not find the account of what they converge on particularly helpful. Preston & de Waal (P&deW) initially appear to be putting forward the very bold empirical hypothesis that all the various phenomena commonly considered species of empathy share a particular underlying mechanism, namely, the Perception-Action Mechanism. It seems arbitrary to exclude from the scope of "empathy" empathetic responses induced by memory, by imagination, or by perception of verbal narratives such as newspaper reports and fiction. Although the authors say they are taking "a broad view of the perception-action model," a view broad enough to count imagination as perception does not really move the field forward. An adequate account should help explain why interdependence/interrelationship is a factor. This would have to be an account that shows how automatic perception-action mechanisms might be integrated with cognitive processes. The authors briefly discuss the simulation theory, noting that a Abstract: Attempts to integrate diverse phenomena in terms of common processes are much needed in psychology, but definitional precision is a necessary preliminary to explanation. It is also preferable to use caution in juxtaposing concepts from different realms of discourse. This is an important task to undertake, for the identification of common processes could lead to a more basic understanding of diverse psychological phenomena. The authors survey a broad range of literature from psychology and the neurosciences. Empathy is seen (perhaps confusingly) as a "superordinate category" "underlying" all phenomena sharing empathy as a common process, such as emotional contagion and helping behaviour. Does the perception-action hypothesis merely state that perception can lead to action? Definitional clarity is not enhanced by the juxtaposition of distinct levels of discourse. This mixture of languages pervades much of the discussion as, for instance, when, on the basis of behavioural data, experience is said to "fine tune the circuits for responding. This may sound like regression to the bad old days of learning theories characterised by disciplined system-building, but there is much to be said for definitional precision. If we construe empathy "broadly," take a "broad view of the perception-action model," and use a "flexible definition" of perception, we could explain almost anything. As another instance of lack of definitional clarity, empathy is said always to involve "some level of personal distress" (sect. But precise explanation of why it sometimes does and sometimes does not is lacking. Humans do not always help others in distress, but to say that in the latter case their behaviour is inhibited is hardly an explanation. To integrate diverse phenomena in terms of a common process is an important enterprise, but precision of definition is inevitably inversely related to the range of phenomena that are explained, and a clear distinction is required between those that require such a process and those where it might operate. Their paper covers a lot of ground, relating the theory to human evolution and reproductive success, mother-infant responses in animals and humans, and the effect of past experience, learning, cue salience, and familiarity/similarity on empathy. They claim the theory is uniquely process-focused, but do not explain the underlying processes except for a foray into neural substrates. Perspective-taking can be voluntary; it can also be activated automatically by the automatic preverbal processes but then one can decide whether to continue or terminate it. Multiple processes are important because they assure an empathic response regardless of age and available cues: facial, vocal, or postural cues can be picked up by observers of any age through mimicry; situational cues, through conditioning or association; feelings expressed verbally or in writing can arouse empathy through mediated association or perspective-taking. Automatic preverbal processes can activate, or be activated by higher-order cognitive processes. Empathy is thus a multi-determined, largely though not entirely automatic and representational, highly reliable human response, which fits the argument that it survived natural selection and has a hereditary component (Hoffman 1981; Zahn-Waxler et al. Prefrontal development and self-other differentiation allow the higher cognitive empathy-arousing processes to kick in, enabling children to empathize with an increasing variety of emotional states and with unseen others (in newspapers, television). Furthermore, many events witnessed in life produce a rapid shifting of causal attributions from moment to moment. This creates a complex empathic response a series of interconnected sequences of attributions and rising and falling levels of empathic distress (Hoffman 1978a; 2000). He reported an instant feeling of horror: but I first thought it was probably a rich, smart-aleck kid driving while drunk or on dope and I did not feel for him [blaming the victim possibly to reduce the pain of empathic horror]. I then thought, this might be unfair, maybe he was rushing because of some emergency, suppose he was taking someone to the hospital, and then I felt for him. But then I thought, that was no excuse, he should have been more careful even if it was an emergency, and my feeling for him decreased. Either way, this line of research would raise our level of understanding of empathy. The neural circuitry critical to this mechanism is composed of frontal and parietal areas matching the observation and execution of action, and interacting heavily with the superior temporal cortex. Further, this cortical system is linked to the limbic system by means of an anterior sector of the human insular lobe. P&deW do tackle an important problem bearing on their view that empathy is both automatic and representational. They report that observing someone grasping an object, and imagining grasping it have similar reaction times, and they seem to conclude the same thing for perception-based and imagination-based empathy. Recently, neurons with neurophysiologic properties compatible with this mechanism have been described in the monkey inferior frontal cortex (Di Pellegrino et al. These neurons, called "mirror" neurons, fire not only when the monkey executes an action but also when the monkey observes another monkey, or a human, performing the same action (Gallese et al. Neurons with similar properties have also been found in the posterior parietal cortex of the monkey (Rizzolatti et al. Further, higher order visual neurons coding complex actions have been described in the superior temporal sulcus of the monkey brain (Perrett & Emery 1994). What we call the "minimal circuitry" for imitation and action understanding would be composed as follows: 1. The superior temporal cortex provides an early visual description of the action to be imitated to specific parietal areas with neurons that have the unique function of matching observation and execution of action. Parietal neurons with observation/execution matching properties add additional somatosensory information to the movement to be imitated. This more complex information is sent to the inferior frontal cortex, which in turn codes the goal of the action to be imitated. Sensory copies of the imitated actions are then sent back to the superior temporal cortex for monitoring purposes ("my actions are like the actions I have seen"). If we want to apply these same neural and functional mechanisms to the domain of emotion and empathy, then a problem arises. The areas so far identified with mirror properties, in fact, belong to a fronto-parietal circuit that is generally not associated with emotions, but rather with "cold" sensorimotor paradigms. However, actions have an emotional correlate, and observers of an action participate empathically with the performer. Hence, the question of interest here is as follows: How does the limbic system get information from the fronto-parietal mirror system when empathy takes place? If one looks at available anatomical connectivity data, a region of the primate insula precisely, the dysgranular field connects limbic areas with the inferior frontal, anterior part of the posterior parietal and superior temporal cortex. We asked subjects to either simply observe or to observe-and-imitate emotional facial expressions.
It becomes particularly problematic if outside control persists beyond response and immediate recovery phases into redevelopment decisions virus games online generic floxin 200 mg otc. New Orleans antimicrobial boxers generic 400 mg floxin amex, with hardly any local staff left due to an inability to pay them antimicrobial index purchase 400mg floxin overnight delivery, was forced to rely heavily on outside assistance during the early stages of planning recovery and redevelopment antibiotics for uti in infants floxin 200 mg sale. Some of these strings may be beneficial and promote mitigation efforts antibiotics simplified pdf buy floxin 200 mg without a prescription, but there may be instances where the implications of the assistance are not consistent with the needs and wants of local government and the citizenry antibiotic resistance for dummies cheap floxin 400mg visa. Municipal Insolvency Following a Disaster As we witnessed in Louisiana and Mississippi, catastrophic disaster events put a tremendous strain on local economies. There, because of the massive areas rendered uninhabitable for extended periods of time, communities experienced a surge in tax delinquencies, bond defaults, bankruptcies and mortgage foreclosures. Unaccustomed to financial emergencies of this magnitude, what do municipalities do when they suddenly become insolvent and the prospects of recovery through traditional revenue sources or tax increases become unlikely? In Palm Beach County there are 38 municipalities, seven of which have a population of less than 1,000 residents). Many of these incorporated areas are almost entirely residential and their revenue sources would be greatly limited after a disaster. In addition, many of these smaller municipalities might not be capable of offering the services that will be needed during disaster recovery. In such cases the responsibility will likely fall to the county and state to do so. Unlike corporations, municipalities are not allowed to liquidate their assets to pay off debts. Municipalities usually craft their plans for adjusting their debts by either refinancing, extending debt maturities, or reducing the amount of their principal or interest. These options may be limited if the credit rating of the city plummets after the disaster. Post Disaster Redevelopment Plan Volume 2 147 A seldom used option for dealing with municipal insolvency is Bankruptcy Protection under Chapter 9. Fewer than 500 governments have filed for Chapter 9 protection since the laws were revised in 1937. The fundamental objectives of Chapter 9 are providing court protection that allows financially distressed municipalities to continue to provide essential public services to their residents while they develop and negotiate plans for adjusting debts. However, Florida has a stricter set of conditions that it imposes on financially distressed municipalities. Early use of local private sector resources is a key strategic element in rebooting local economies. Many area businesses provide goods and services which have direct or indirect relevance to recovery needs. Some may require outside assistance in amassing needed equipment and materials or may need a base facility from which to work. Given the proper information prior to a disaster and a line of communication to those in charge of recovery work, many businesses would be able to speed recovery efforts and at the same time reduce their disruption losses from the event. Use of a local labor force may minimize the post disaster skill drains that often occur when workers with marketable skills leave to pursue work outside the impact area. Among its 50 plus planned initiatives are measures encouraging businesses helping businesses. Through policy and support of the local business community, Palm Beach County shall work to preserve and restore the industry, agriculture, and tourism bases critical to a sustaining a healthy local economy and supporting a high quality of life for its residents. Availability and Affordability of Property Insurance As most homeowners in Florida are well aware, property insurance premiums are increasing substantially as adequate coverage becomes harder to find. Many private insurance companies are not able to insure more homeowners in high risk areas and are having to raise rates because of the increased risk during this era of high hurricane activity. Other companies are actually dropping customers and discontinuing coverage in the state. Many homeowners who cannot find coverage in the private market are turning to the public Citizens Property Insurance Corporation created by Florida Statute 627. However, Citizens itself is having problems making up for its 2004 $515 million deficit and the likely deficit from 2005. The Corporation is required by law to reduce its exposure through depopulation of its policies but they are being forced to pay private insurers to pick up some of these. This is causing a further financial burden for property owners, even those who are not in high hazard areas. Member insurance companies pay premiums into the pool and when losses reach a set trigger level companies pay a deductible to get reinsurance funds. Building construction shortages caused claims to be higher than expected for the past couple hurricane seasons, and the legislature passed changes to the fund in 2005 to lower the trigger level for insurers due to the burden of subsequent storms. These issues, along with massive losses from the 2004 and 2005 hurricanes, have caused the Fund to run out of money. To try to solve this problem, the Legislature increased the bonding capacity of the Fund; however, the bonds are paid for through assessments on insurers in the state, which pass the cost on to their policyholders. Palm Beach County should keep abreast of legislative intentions for property insurance and make itself heard through local legislators and lobbying organizations such as the League of Cities. Post Disaster Redevelopment Plan Volume 2 149 Business interruptions and failures stemming from disaster events deal a severe blow to local economies in terms of lost productivity and employment. S Department of Labor Statistics, consistently reports that 50% to 70% of businesses either never reopen after a major disaster or fail after reopening. Small businesses are represented disproportionately higher among the business casualties. In Palm Beach County, approximately 80% of businesses have fewer than 10 employees (Truesdale, 2006). The extent of damage to critical production and service capacity, inventory, and capital assets are some factors. Other factors involve the amount of financial resources a business can quickly obtain for recovery; these usually include insurance, reserves, and loans. Prolonged interruptions waiting for insurance settlements and loan approvals can be catastrophic. Studies indicate the median percentage of business losses covered by approved loans was about 50%. A major problem involves collateral requirements when homes and workplaces have been damaged or destroyed. Service businesses that rent and have few tangible assets also are at a disadvantage. Small business owners, in a rush to reopen and get back to normal, often fail to consider other business options such as reinventing their business or establishing a new business that better suits the changed post disaster business environment (Alesch & Holly, 2002). After a disaster, it may be some time before tourists return to the area in the same numbers that proved profitable before. The purpose of the Emergency Bridge Loan Program is to provide a source of expedient cash flow to Florida small businesses impacted by a disaster. These short-term, interest-free working capital loans are intended to "bridge the gap" between the time a major catastrophe hits and when a business has secured longer term recovery resources, such as sufficient profits from a revived business, receipt of payments on insurance claims or federal disaster assistance. The program provides a short-term loan of State of Florida public funds, not a grant, with the expectation that repayment will be made out of receipts from other sources of longer term disaster recovery assistance. Post Disaster Redevelopment Plan Volume 2 150 Payments: Payments are not required during the established loan term, but loans must be paid in full by end of the loan term. A number of state and federal assistance programs may become available following a disaster. Finally the county and regional private-public partnerships are pursuing a number of business helping business assistance initiatives to offer small businesses. Avoiding Permanent Relocations of Core Businesses Outside of the Community As exemplified by Hurricane Andrew, September 11th, and Hurricane Katrina, virtually all major disasters are accompanied by business relocations, some temporary, but many permanent. Replacement of key businesses can be extremely time consuming, costly, and difficult. And, such occurrences often permanently change the social and economic chemistry of the community. The effects of post disaster relocations on the Gulf region are not fully understood at this point. It is not clear how much coordination occurred between the public and private sectors regarding these relocations from New York City. Businesses often took care of themselves or relied on the good will and generosity of others in the private sector. For a variety of reasons, many businesses have no plans or intentions of returning to the City. Today, New York City laments the loss of businesses and is still dealing with the economic void. Faced with unusable buildings and equipment, damaged infrastructure, extended outages of critical services, displaced or victimized employees, and accessibility issues, businesses are faced with critical and time sensitive decisions to make. Concerted efforts need to be made by community leaders to retain core businesses and to support their recovery. Planning and preparation need to occur well before a disaster strikes in order to accomplish this. Incentives and the availability of temporary workspace and temporary housing for employees may be factors that determine whether a business can stay or leave after a disaster. Workforce development efforts can also entice a company to remain in the area by assuring them that efforts are being made to retain skilled workers and train others. Assistance with business continuity planning before a disaster can also be an effective strategy. This can be localized, but in an era of increased hurricane activity, storm damage in one section of the country will divert supplies from other locales. Post Disaster Redevelopment Plan Volume 2 151 continues to rebuild in the wake of Katrina and Rita, causing construction material prices to soar throughout the country (Christie, 2005). The increases in construction prices also affect the overall real estate market and can negatively impact the availability of affordable homes. In addition to construction activities, residents seek repair estimates from contractors before accepting their insurance claim settlement. The high demand for estimates and construction tasks translates into long delays before either estimates are provided or work crews are available. In addition to the post disaster demand for building materials, the United States has experienced a surge in construction over the last several years that further reduce available supplies (Insurance Information Institute, 2006). The delays in supplies and contractor services for repairing structures can be very exasperating for residents and business owners who are trying to return their lives and businesses to normal. Many people also become frustrated when they cannot get their building repaired but see new construction resuming after a disaster. Long delays in repairing damaged homes and businesses also put inhabitants of these structures at risk from mold-related illnesses and/or from increased vulnerability to wildfires as embers can more easily enter a structure with damaged eaves or siding (Florida Division of Forestry, 2005). The market should begin to correct for the shortages in supplies as more contractors and suppliers begin to understand the increase in hurricane activity. Incentives for contractors to do small repair jobs before resuming large construction contracts after a major hurricane should be explored as well as increasing contractor classes and offering expedited post disaster training addressing Florida-specific building regulations for out of state contractors coming in to help. Rapid Restoration of Electrical Power and other Private Utilities As anyone who has lived in Palm Beach County during hurricane season knows, recovery from a hurricane really cannot begin until major utilities, especially electricity, are restored. Power and telecommunication outages keep most businesses from operating and result in large disruption costs that business owners must absorb. Approximately 18,000 utility crew members were called in from around the Southeast, in accordance with mutual aid agreements. It was the largest outage in company history and required almost 19,000 workers and several weeks to restore power to all customers. However, long-term recovery in uninhabitable areas may provide important windows of opportunity for mitigation. Palm Beach County leads the nation in the production of sugarcane, fresh sweet corn, and sweet bell peppers. In 2010-11, the 459,865 acres dedicated to agriculture represent 36% of the total land mass in the county. According to recent land use analysis, 16,298 acres of the unincorporated agricultural lands are located in flood zones; all of the acres are subject to high winds from hurricanes (Florida Department of Community Affairs, 2006). The incessant rains associated with tropical storms and hurricanes can cause severe flood damage to crops. Flooding caused by a major failure in the Herbert Hoover Dike would have catastrophic economic consequences for farmers, their employees, and the local economy, perhaps even impacting the national food supply. While little can be done to prevent such agricultural losses, besides ongoing efforts to strengthen the dike, the government can assist by ensuring agricultural recovery is treated as a high recovery priority and fully leveraging financial assistance programs for farmers and the workers who will be essential to rebuilding the industry. Palm Beach County shall promote social equity and environmental quality in all post disaster recovery and redevelopment. Reducing the Incidence of Fraudulent and Unethical Practices Unfortunately, some people see a disaster as an opportunity to make money; usually at the expense of victims. This could keep some people from being able to obtain assistance as quickly, or at all. This also creates more desperate disaster victims who may fall prey to predatory lenders as they try to make ends meet financially. Speculators often pounce on an impacted coastline and offer quick money to devastated homeowners who either do not understand the true value of their property after a disaster or are so upset from the situation that they hastily wish to move far away to somewhere that seems safer (Musgrave, 2004). There is a constant pressure of gentrification in these areas even before a disaster but many of the residents are unwilling to sell because their family has always lived there or because of the sense of community they find there. After a disaster, left with very few possessions and perhaps unemployed, some see no choice but to sell. The area is losing historic and unique neighborhoods, while a majority of the residents are not receiving fair compensation for their properties. Education prior to a disaster and available assistance after a disaster is needed in all these instances.
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