Oncology Pharmacy Resident, University of Colorado Hospital, Aurora, Colorado
The community-based strategy to prevent coronary heart disease: Conclusions from the ten years of the North Karelia Project antifungal antibacterial soap generic terbinafine 250 mg overnight delivery. The North Karelia Project: 15 years of community-based prevention of coronary heart disease antifungal uk purchase 250mg terbinafine. The long-term effects of a cardiovascular disease prevention trial: the Stanford Five-City Project fungus dogs 250 mg terbinafine visa. Effects of the Heartbeat Wales programme over five years on behavioural risks for cardiovascular disease: Quasi-experimental comparison of results from Wales and a matched reference area antifungal lip balm generic 250 mg terbinafine fast delivery. Reduction of coronary heart disease risk factors in the German cardiovascular prevention study antifungal medicine oral generic terbinafine 250mg without a prescription. The impact of a community-based heart disease prevention program in a low-income antifungal body soap terbinafine 250mg fast delivery, inner-city neighborhood. The effectiveness of a media-led intervention to reduce smoking among VietnameseAmerican men. Changes in coronary heart disease risk factors in the 1980s: Evidence of a male-female crossover effect with age. Longitudinal effects of the midwestern prevention project on regular and experimental smoking in adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. Antitobacco media awareness of rural youth compared to suburban and urban youth in Indiana. The impact of an antismoking media campaign on progression to established smoking: Results of a longitudinal youth study. The Florida "truth" anti-tobacco media evaluation: Design, first year results, and implications for planning future state media evaluations. Intervention study for primary prevention of oral cancer among 36,000 Indian tobacco users. Do tobacco countermarketing campaigns increase adolescent under-reporting of smoking Results from an evaluation of a special smoking and health information campaign in Norwegian newspapers and on television in 1977, seen against the background of the general situation as regards smoking and as regards the media. In Health education and the media: Proceedings of an international conference organized jointly by the Scottish Health Education Group, eds. The outcome consequences of defunding the Minnesota youth tobacco-use prevention program. Reducing cigarette consumption in California: Tobacco taxes vs an anti smoking media campaign. Confirming "truth": More evidence of a successful tobacco countermarketing campaign in Florida. Changes in youth cigarette use and intentions following implementation of a tobacco control program: Findings from the Florida 124. The 2005 British Columbia Smoking Cessation Mass Media Campaign and short-term changes in smoking. Evidence of effectiveness: A summary of state tobacco control program evaluation literature. Changes in cigarette consumption, prices, and tobacco industry revenues associated with California. Secular trends in adolescent never smoking from 1990 to 1999 in California: An age-period-cohort analysis. Trends in prevalence of current smoking, Massachusetts and states without tobacco control programmes, 1990 to 1999. Decreased youth tobacco use in Massachusetts 1996 to 1999: Evidence of tobacco control effectiveness. Tobacco use by Massachusetts public college students: Long term effect of the Massachusetts Tobacco Control Program. Community-based youth tobacco control interventions: Cost effectiveness of the Full Court Press project. Telephone counseling for smoking cessation: Effects of single-session and multiple-session interventions. Promoting smoking cessation in the United States: Effect of public service announcements on the Cancer Information Service telephone line. A targeted communications campaign to increase use of the cancer information service by African American smokers. Uptake and effectiveness of the Australian telephone Quitline service in the context of a mass media campaign. The effectiveness of television advertising campaigns on generating calls to a national Quitline by Maori. Investigating the relation between placement of Quit antismoking advertisements and number of telephone calls to Quitline: A semiparametric modelling approach. Antismoking television advertising and socioeconomic variations in calls to Quitline. Impact of a telephone helpline for smokers who called during a mass media campaign. This part explores two areas in which tobacco industry efforts against tobacco control and interventions involve the media. The first chapter reviews state-level tobacco control media programs in Minnesota, California, Arizona, and Florida as examples of industry attempts to prevent or limit the scope of antitobacco media campaigns through political advocacy, claims of fiscal crisis, negotiated restrictions, or legal challenges. The second chapter addresses the use of media in attempting to defeat state tobacco control initiatives and referenda, looking at results from several state-level propositions. Television, radio, print, and billboard advertising have been used to portray tobacco tax initiatives as unfair taxation, limitation of personal choice, or wasteful government spending with mixed levels of success. By understanding how tobacco control efforts can be blunted by protobacco media interventions, public health stakeholders can more effectively plan efforts to reduce tobacco use in their states and communities. To b a c c o I n d u s t r y E f f o r t s t o I n f l u e n c e To b a c c o C o n t r o l M e d i a Introduction Tobacco control media campaigns can be an effective means to reduce cigarette consumption (see chapter 12). This chapter examines how the tobacco industry works, at times through intermediaries, to prevent or limit the effectiveness of these campaigns. This chapter provides some historical context for the development of antismoking and anti-industry advertisements, beginning with the Fairness Doctrine messages in the 1960s, and outlines the corresponding tobacco use behaviors that result from changes in regulation of tobacco industry advertising. Second, this chapter reviews published information on selected state tobacco control media campaigns as they developed over time from Minnesota to California to Arizona and Florida. The chapter concludes by identifying four specific approaches the tobacco industry uses against tobacco control media campaigns. The doctrine required television and radio stations to air both sides of "controversial issues," even though doing so required the provision of free air time to one side of the "controversy. The doctrine was designed to ensure that all sides of controversial issues would be given access to the airwaves, even if one side could not pay for access. The antismoking messages that aired slowed cigarette consumption by 531 cigarettes per person per year, while tobacco company advertising increased consumption by only 95 cigarettes per person per year5 (figure 13. Subsequent to this decrease in consumption, Congress banned cigarette advertising on television and radio, effective January 2, 1971. However, by removing cigarette commercials from television and radio, the broadcast advertising ban removed the requirement for antitobacco advertisements as well. While losing direct broadcast advertising, the tobacco industry was able to compensate by increasing its advertising and promotional expenditures elsewhere. In addition, the industry continued to effectively use sports sponsorship, advertising in baseball and other stadiums, and event sponsorship to ensure that its logos and images remained prominently displayed on television. With the elimination of tobacco control advertisements at the national level in 1970, the focus shifted to the state level. In the mid-1980s, states began to establish tobacco control programs, including paid media campaigns. Several states, beginning with Minnesota, developed and implemented significant media campaigns, which were met by tobacco industry efforts to curtail the effectiveness of such media campaigns. This chapter presents case studies to illustrate efforts that helped eliminate antitobacco campaigns in Minnesota and Florida, limited the scope of the campaigns in California and Arizona, and impeded progress on campaigns such as that of Legacy. Minnesota Minnesota was the first state to create a statewide paid tobacco control media 551 1 3. To b a c c o I n d u s t r y E f f o r t s t o I n f l u e n c e To b a c c o C o n t r o l M e d i a campaign. The document proposed "a coordinated statewide program to prevent young people from starting to smoke, to encourage and assist smokers to quit, and to promote clean indoor air. In addition, an information component would provide regularly to the news media and other communication channels scientific data on smoking and nonsmoking. This strategy was based on the belief that information played a significant role in the promotion of nonsmoking. In the early 1980s, this group was the largest single block of smokers (141,000 of 812,000 total smokers) in Minnesota. These cost estimates also were promulgated by Minnesota business and labor coalitions. The Role of the Media Shifting the Focus from Tobacco the tobacco industry questioned the financial planning for the Minnesota Plan and worked to shift the debate away from health to "areas in which we have the most credible arguments. Mobilize voters to demonstrate that members of the public do not want further government intrusion in their lives, 3. Create an information campaign to convince Minnesota taxpayers that numerous national programs already addressed this issue. A major objective of these funds was to reduce smoking among Minnesota youth by roughly a third, from 18% in 1986 to 13% in 1990. This decrease in funding translated to a 42% reduction in Minnesota Department of Health media placements. As a result, several target groups and venues were eliminated, including boys at risk for using smokeless tobacco and cable television advertisements targeting women and high school sport sponsorships. Brozek, Tobacco Institute regional vice president, reported Our increasingly successful relationship with the Minnesota Grocers Association and our efforts in working with community groups (Iron Range Food Shelf Charities) are two new areas of real potential for the 1988 legislative year. Never before has the tobacco industry embarked on such a detailed labor effort in the state of Minnesota. Neither the Minnesota Department of Health nor tobacco control advocates were able to hold these constituencies after the tobacco industry pursued them. With these new allies, the tobacco industry targeted legislative districts of specific House and Senate leaders. According to Brozek, the allies used several strategies specifically targeting legislative districts "with an emphasis on business, social, labor and civic groups. Beyond outreach to allies, the tobacco industry strengthened its campaign contributions and lobbying budget after the start of the first media campaign in 1986. Assistant health commissioner Mick Finn responded to criticism by arguing that the state still would "spend $1. Rather, antitobacco interests felt that belief in a fiscal crisis was strong enough to preclude sufficient sympathetic support in the legislature to save the antismoking campaign. To b a c c o I n d u s t r y E f f o r t s t o I n f l u e n c e To b a c c o C o n t r o l M e d i a and that health groups did little to press the department to give the program a higher priority. These factors enabled Governor Carlson and the legislature to eliminate the funds dedicated to the antismoking media campaign. These included toleration from the governor and active and enthusiastic support from the director of health services, Kenneth W. First, although Governor Deukmejian had campaigned against Proposition 99, he believed that after the voters passed it, the proposition should be implemented. Within the California Department of Health Services, Kizer was a strong supporter of the media campaign and was eager to see it make a significant difference in California. The proposals were due six weeks later, on January 10, 1990, and on January 26, 1990, the California Department of Health Services selected a Los Angeles advertising firm to develop the media campaign. The first antitobacco advertisements aired on April 10, 1990, only 65 days after the contract was signed. The antitobacco campaign also was directed at nonsmokers to reinforce the nonsmoking position 556 Monograph 19. Rather than conveying a health message, the advertising agency decided to directly address tobacco company practices.
We perceive Formula One and Indy car racing as adding fungus gnats prevention buy terbinafine 250 mg amex, if you will fungus vegetable cheap terbinafine 250 mg visa, a modern-day dimension to the Marlboro Man antifungal ingredients cheap 250mg terbinafine. Thus fungus gnats in dwc cheap 250 mg terbinafine otc, ways of communicating rugged masculinity may be adjusted over time fungus gnats cinnamon best terbinafine 250mg, including activities and celebrities depicted fungus gnats uk420 purchase 250mg terbinafine visa. Philip Morris has communicated a consistent, complementary message to the Yet, while the image(s) communicated may remain the same, different symbols can be used to help the brand remain relevant, contemporary, and appealing to an ever-changing audience. For promotional campaigns to remain effective over time, practitioners need to maintain message salience for a contemporary audience, including those not yet affected by a particular campaign, and account for a cohort effect. The Role of the Media target consumer over time and through different elements of the promotional mix. Earlier, Marlboro had been targeted to women "as the essence of femininity,"8 with advertising slogans such as "Mild as May. By 1964, Marlboro 1990s, promotional initiatives dubbed had become linked nearly exclusively with "Party at the Marlboro Ranch" provided a cowboy, considered an ideal symbol of sweepstakes winners with vacation rugged masculinity, freedom, escapism, opportunities to ranches located in adventure, independence, simple Montana and Arizona. Marlboro cigarettes are offered in a flip-top package, which is publicized as solid and "crush-proof. The magazine content-hailed as "Action, Adventure, and Good Times"-closely matches the psychographics of the target market for the Marlboro brand. The key sponsorship properties of Marlboro are automobile racing and motorcycle racing. It is estimated that 300 million people watch each Formula One race on television. In addition, it is easy to see that the various Marlboro promotional efforts collectively communicate a cohesive and powerful message. For tobacco companies such as Philip Morris, regulated restrictions on access to different media further compelled seeking a variety of nontraditional media (making use of emerging technologies and new media). The Role of the Media the Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act in the United Kingdom prohibits tobacco advertising in the print media and on billboards as well as by direct mail and other promotions, effective in 2003. The act also banned tobacco sponsorship of sporting events (other than international events) in July of that year, and tobacco sponsorship of Formula One motor racing ended in July 2005. Broadly, they included the following requirements: Youth: Advertisements were not to be designed or presented in a way which had a greater appeal to those under 18 than to the general public. Advertisements were not to play on the susceptibilities of the immature or vulnerable nor were they to feature heroic, cult or fashionable figures in a way that might appeal to the young. In the 1995 edition of the Codes, the rules were tightened to prohibit humour being used to attract young people. Health, context and environment: Advertisements were not to suggest that smoking was safe, popular, natural, healthy or necessary for relaxation and concentration. Cigarettes were not to be shown in the mouth and smoking was not to be associated with healthy eating or a wholesome life-style. Social success: Advertisements were not to link smoking with people who were evidently wealthy, successful or fashionable or who possessed other qualities that might command admiration or encourage emulation. They were not to claim or imply that smoking was a sign of masculinity or that it enhanced feminine charm. Nor were they to imply a link between smoking and social, sexual, romantic or business success. Promotions: Advertisements for coupon brands were not to feature products unless those products could be obtained through the redemption of coupons collected over a reasonable period of average consumption. Silk Cut and Benson & Hedges (sold in the United Kingdom by Gallaher Group Plc), as well as Marlboro, were the most notable brands employing surreal advertising. Key Principles of Promotion and Rationales for Regulation Surreal advertisements for Benson & Hedges showing cigarettes curled by a curling iron (above) and an oversized cigarette box buried on a rocky beach (right) that cigarettes were being promoted was the government-mandated health warning shown at the bottom of the ad. Another [ad in 1980] showed it being carried away by ants as if it were something dead. A B&H ad in the 1990s showed "a dentist with a perverse grin who has just pulled a gold tooth. The first advertisement in this series "showed a pool of silk gathered in a dreamy haphazard way-and cut with a significant slit. Other ads in the campaign were described in the Wall Street Journal as follows: One award-winning ad shows a row of scissors dancing the cancan in purple silk skirts. One showed strips of purple silk falling from the holes of giant, building-like cheese graters, resembling a ticker-tape parade. The Role of the Media Surreal advertisements for Silk Cut cigarettes (above and right) Surreal advertisements for Marlboro cigarettes also appeared in the United Kingdom, typically showing one prominent item in red within an otherwise black-and white scene that one might expect to find in "Marlboro Country". As in the case of many of the surreal ads for Silk Cut and B&H, many of these Marlboro ads did not show cigarettes or depict smoking. Although some of the ads proclaimed "Welcome to Marlboro Country,"127 other ads had no obvious connection to cigarettes, except for the health warning at the bottom of the ads. One surreal Marlboro ad, for example, showed a red river flowing through the valley of a broad and desolate canyon. Another showed a bright red motorcycle alongside a bleak and deserted country road. They may have been designed to achieve one or more of the following goals: (1) to get noticed in a "noisy" marketing environment; (2) to engage the viewer in attempting to discern the meaning of the ad; (3) to affirm the intelligence of the viewer who solves the riddle of the ad; (4) to evoke humor; (5) to elicit feelings of eroticism, violence, or death; and (6) to influence smoking behavior and attitudes toward smoking while navigating through or around the provisions of the Cigarette Code. To be successful, an advertisement must break through the cluttered sensory environment in modern society to get noticed. The average consumer is exposed to about 2 million brand messages each year across all media channels. Unusual or bizarre images in advertising are more likely than is traditional imagery to capture the attention of a reader perusing a magazine or a person walking or driving by a billboard. A related objective is that atypical advertising is more likely to garner publicity or "buzz" (see chapter 4 for a discussion of "viral" marketing). Another likely purpose of surreal advertisements is to engage the viewer in attempting to discern their meaning. Academic research finds that such advertisements not only attract attention Surreal advertisement to link the color red with the red Marlboro chevron 71 3. Key Principles of Promotion and Rationales for Regulation but also engage consumers in more thought. If viewers spend more time pondering the meaning of an advert, if they make more of an investment in interpreting it. Clever advertising driven by puns on intrinsic properties-the box, the brand name-made for clever, memorable brands; brands with an assurance that made the older cigarette advertising approaches look decidedly klutzy. A third purpose of these advertisements may be to have viewers feel good about themselves for having figured out the meaning of an advertisement or an advertising campaign. Viewers who experience a sense of accomplishment after solving the riddle of an ad132 are likely to have more favorable views toward the product being advertised (and toward the manufacturer of the product). During a discussion of the semiotics of a Silk Cut ad in the novel Nice Work,136 the female protagonist maintained that the ad "appeals to both sensual and sadistic impulses. Many of the Silk Cut advertisements, as noted above, feature scissors, knives, and other cutting instruments, including saws, axes, and meat cleavers. The M&C Saatchi creative executive asserted that, the primary motivating factor in my culture, in my advertising culture, is an attempt to get humour into the advertisement. The Role of the Media Sexual imagery used in surreal advertisements for Silk Cut cigarettes (above and right) a scene with an undercurrent of violence. In one, a woman is holding garden shears, seemingly upset that her husband is talking with the buxom woman next door (who is hanging her purple undergarments on a clothes line). In the other, a man is working on a newspaper crossword puzzle and ignoring his food at the dinner table, while his wife is gripping a knife in a menacing way. McIntosh argues that the imagery suggesting sexual violence and death is tapping into "rape fantasy" and what Sigmund Freud called the "death instinct. Langan135 commented as follows: Silk Cut has managed to allude to sensual and sexual desire, thus demonstrating one way in which [an] advertiser can attempt to covertly allude to qualities, or suggest reasons for buying their product which, because of the strict laws in the case of cigarette advertisements, they are not able to do overtly. Any brand communication that achieves this level of sophistication is a brand-building victory. Such a campaign could integrate its message across channels, even conquering those channels in which advertising is restricted, as is the case with tobacco and other products. Key Principles of Promotion and Rationales for Regulation the repetition of this metaphor [cut silk] for the brand Silk Cut has produced an important effect. It is mainly the colour which has become the symbolic tool with which the viewer can approach and "correctly" discover the preferred reading of the adverts. This becomes important in later advertisements where the silken object and the cut are even less apparent. The key rationales for implementing a comprehensive ban on tobacco advertising and promotion include (1) the health consequences of tobacco use (including addiction); (2) the deceptive or misleading nature of several tobacco promotional campaigns; (3) the unavoidable exposure of youth to these campaigns; (4) the role of tobacco advertising and promotion in increasing tobacco use in the population, especially among youth; (5) the targeting of "at-risk" populations through advertising and promotion, including youth, women, and ethnic and racial minorities; (6) the failure of the tobacco industry to effectively selfregulate; and (7) the ineffectiveness of partial advertising bans. The third, fourth, and fifth rationales are reviewed in detail in chapters 4, 5, and 7; the others are discussed below. This raises the question of whether cigarette companies strive to develop strong color associations for their leading brands to allow the companies to continue color-based brand promotions under severe marketing rules anticipated to exist in the future. Indeed, in Papua New Guinea, "the entire exteriors of shopping centres and small trading posts are not uncommonly painted in the colours of a major cigarette brand. Health Consequences of Tobacco Use A government regulatory role in the creation of tobacco control policies is largely justified because cigarette smoking represents the single most important cause of preventable illness and premature death in the United States. Smoking has been linked to a number of health problems, including chronic bronchitis and emphysema; strokes and heart disease; and cancer of the lung, lip, oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, A Rationale for Regulating Tobacco Promotion Regulation, according to C. Lloyd BrownJohn, is defined as "any constraint imposed upon the normal freedom of individuals by 74 Monograph 19. It is estimated that roughly 440,000 Americans die prematurely each year as a result of smoking. Secondhand smoke is the combination of smoke produced by the burning of tobacco (sidestream smoke) and the exhaled smoke from a smoker. Secondhand smoke consists of gases and particles that contain more than 4,000 chemicals, more than 50 of which are cancer-causing agents. A reduction in overall tobacco consumption levels is regarded as a valuable objective toward health care reform efforts and offsetting ever-increasing health care costs. In the United States, it is estimated that the economic costs attributable to smoking are $157 billion each year, including $75. During 2001, the states alone spent roughly $12 billion toward the treatment of smoking-attributable diseases. She wrote, For several decades, Defendants have marketed and promoted their low tar brands as being less harmful than conventional cigarettes. By making these false claims, Defendants have given smokers an acceptable alternative to quitting smoking, as well as an excuse for not quitting. More than 30 countries have now banned the use of "light" and "mild" as cigarette product descriptors. On January 4, 1954, a full-page advocacy advertisement, using the headline "A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers," circulated in 448 newspapers in 258 U. We always have and always will cooperate closely with those whose task it is to safeguard the public health. The 1970s marked the launch of several cigarette brands that were promoted with lower (machine measured) tar deliveries. Several virtuous-sounding brand names such as Merit, Fact, True, and Life are inherently misleading for a product such as cigarettes. According to Pollay and Dewhirst, the product development process for Merit was as much focused on consumer and market testing as on product technologies, Monograph 19. The final market launch strategies used in 1976 gave particular emphasis to the choice of the name Merit, obviously communicating apparent virtue, and used an advertising style that made this product development seem eminently scientific and newsworthy and less like an ad. For example, a marketing consultancy firm, the Institute for Analytical Research Inc. For example, during the mid 1980s, when tobacco industry promotional spending was overrepresented among brands with supposedly low-tar yields, Brown & Williamson advertisements asserted that among all cigarettes, "Carlton is lowest" by referring to the U. To satisfy their addiction, smokers often compensate when smoking lower-yield cigarettes. Key Principles of Promotion and Rationales for Regulation should be directed towards providing consumer reassurance about cigarettes and the smoking habit. For many of the women, the idea that they would be "getting less" was a huge advantage. This is an illusion, in a sense, for it is the actual tar and nicotine delivery which is the main factor of a health attribute, but most people ignored this. Perception is more important than reality, and in this case the perception is of reduced tobacco consumption. For many consumers, cigarettes with the "slim" product descriptor may imply that the product is "risk reduced. Under the subtitle "Health Implications," interoffice correspondence included a summary of findings gleaned from consumer testing: Overriding the perception of its stylishness is an impression that this cigarette has potential health advantages because there Meanwhile, executive testimony and internal Imperial Tobacco Ltd. Self-regulation should ensure that advertisements are not false, misleading, in poor taste, unfair, or socially irresponsible. It is a process by which there is "voluntary control of business conduct and performance by business itself. First, self-regulation can assist and complement statutory regulation given that the codes and guidelines of self-regulation are often more stringent than those imposed by law. Second, when advertising practices are questioned, there is typically less animosity because of self-regulation by the industry. Statutory regulation, on the other hand, relies heavily on the judicial system for enforcement. Third, self-regulation is typically seen as a more efficient and less expensive mechanism for handling complaints compared with government regulation. Industry representatives, it is argued, are more knowledgeable about their field than are government officials. Finally, when justifiable complaints surface, the noncomplier is likely to adhere to the resulting decisions because the standards that were breached had previously been accepted voluntarily. Self-regulation has several disadvantages, however, that lead many to consider it improbable that private interests can selfregulate in the public interest. Even if it is demonstrated that self-regulation can produce responsible advertisements, the voluntary standards of self-regulation may be purposely loose to ensure greater participation of the industry members.
After considerable debate fungus 250 mg terbinafine with amex, which had as much to do with ecology as archaeology anti fungal acne treatment 250mg terbinafine with mastercard, it was decided to lay timber steps in the scarring fungus gnats in grow room 250 mg terbinafine for sale, bedded primarily in the topsoil and following the profile of the slopes fungus gnats larvae cannabis trusted 250mg terbinafine. Although an archaeological watching brief was carried out fungus gnats larvae picture purchase terbinafine 250 mg online, no archaeologically sensitive deposits were revealed antifungal garden spray generic terbinafine 250 mg visa, let alone damaged, by the careful setting of the steps. Perhaps more importantly, the neutral colour of the steps and their laying in existing scars prevented them from being visible in distant views of the site and they are barely perceptible from the middle ward. Hard surfaces were avoided, though it was accepted that some would undoubtedly be needed. It was decided to review the situation after the site had been open for six months, and deal with problems as they arose rather than trying to impose a solution at the outset. Perhaps not surprisingly, wear patterns repeated those recorded before the conservation project began, and only slight modification was needed. The castle is, of course, only one element of a wider whole, and it was treated as such. It is also part of a much greater whole, the frontier with Wales and one of the principal bases for the English colonisation of that country. Its conservation must be seen in that wider context and it must not be separated from its context by modern intervention. The decision to leave the site very much as it was found was carried into its wider landscape. There is no car park or visitor centre at the castle, which has to be approached on foot. Disabled access is virtually impossible and would be even with major intervention. However, intellectual access is provided both within the parish church and in the village centre, and car parking developed within the village can only help with the regeneration of Wigmore itself. Thus the castle ruins can remain a central and uncluttered feature of the wider landscape. However, reburial is often seen as controversial and actively opposed by a range of stakeholders, whose interests may be contingent on continued access to the site. This overview by Demas examines both the rationale for reburial and the perspective of objec tors. Demas presents a decisionmaking model for reburial interventions, based on a systematic assessment of cultural values, condition survey, and the management environment, including consideration of stakeholder, technical, and management needs. Introduction Recognition that the archaeological record is being destroyed at an alarming rate by development pressures, by the act of excavation itself, by the passage of time and by increased visitation has spurred the development of preservation strategies to protect that record. Reburial, or backfilling as it is also known,2 has emerged as one of the most viable and flexible intervention strategies for preserving exposed archaeological remains. It is, therefore, a conservation strategy applicable to almost any exposed archaeological remains or ruins, but it is most commonly applied to excavated remains. It reflects, on the one hand, the well-established theoretical basis that exists for advocating reburial as a conservation strategy, but on the other hand, the lack of any rigorous evaluation and documentation of sites that have been reburied for a long period. Equally important, the description of reburial as intuitive also reflects the haphazard way in which it has been, and for the most part continues to be, implemented. To move reburial beyond the intuitive stage will require documenting its effectiveness in preserving archaeological remains; examining the rationale for reburial and addressing objections to the practices that continue to impede its application; assessing the appropriateness of reburial within the larger context of management decisions; and providing a firmer basis for the selection of techniques and materials for a reburial design. Only in this way can the practice of reburial be more vigorously advocated by archaeologists and by the authorities responsible for setting policy, and be more confidently implemented by conservation practitioners. This paper will look generally at the decision-making process in relation to reburial and specifically at the considerations (stakeholder, technical and managerial) that are integral to developing a sustainable reburial strategy. The Rationale for Reburial It is a truism of archaeological theory that excavation is destruction. This refers to the inevitable destruction of context that occurs during the process of excavation. Its antidote has always been a system of rigorous record-keeping and documentation. It is the first, and undoubtedly the most important, but unfortunately often the only lesson learned by practitioners of archaeology about preserving the archaeological record. Beyond excavation, a site is subject to other forms of destruction that threaten the resource base and bring into question the justification for excavation. Contributing to this exploitation is the post-excavation treatment of sites, which frequently takes the form of neglect and offers the prospect of continuous deterioration. In most parts of the world, especially those whose archaeological sites have extensive architectural remains. With few exceptions, only those sites with proven touristic potential are provided with adequate maintenance and protection. These, however, represent a minority of archaeological sites and even they are not immune from sources of deterioration, which may require conservation measures beyond routine maintenance. At a time when the very act of excavation is being questioned as an unwise use of a finite resource, it has become incumbent upon those wishing to pursue excavation to take a broader view of their responsibilities to the archaeological record and archaeological constituencies or stakeholders. In this context the rationale for reburial is that it is one important strategy that excavators and government authorities have at their disposal to reduce the contribution of excavation to the destruction of archaeological resources. Mitigating Deterioration through Reburial the theoretical justification for proposing reburial as a conservation strategy begins with the empirical evidence of excavation itself. Every field archaeologist has observed the beneficial effects of burial on the preservation of material remains. These observations are enhanced when compared with parts of the same site that have been exposed, either from earlier excavation or because they were never fully buried. One of the most prominent examples is the Sphinx at Giza, whose survival for over four millennia may be attributed to its being buried in sand for most of that period, and whose present deterioration is due in large part to its total exposure for less than 100 years. The materials that are most commonly left in situ on excavated archaeological sites are those used for construction: stone, adobe or earth, clay or lime-based plasters and mortars, the pigments used for decorating these surfaces and, less commonly, wood. The results of these decay processes are easily seen at excavated sites, even after only one season of excavation. Archaeology is a relatively young discipline but, after a century or more of large-scale excavation and exposure of sites, the cumulative effects of deterioration processes and lack of maintenance are all too evident to even the casual observer. Conservation and management interventions to a site can reduce the rate of deterioration, but none can respond to the totality of deterioration processes so effectively as reburial. It does so in two ways: by protecting the site from the direct effects of water, wind, vegetation, light, animals and humans; and by re-establishing a stable environment, thereby preventing deterioration caused by continual fluctuations in temperature and moisture, and by removing the zone of evaporation and salt crystallization away from the substrate. Confirmation of theory by informal observation has generated an abundant fund of anecdotal evidence on the effectiveness of reburial in prolonging the life of in situ archaeological remains. Verification and documentation of these observations is necessary if reburial is to go beyond its intuitive stage and take its place in the first rank of preservation strategies. This was partly the aim of a research project at Chaco Culture National Historical Park, where in 1992 evaluation of the effectiveness of reburial was done by partial re-excavation of selected architectural units that were reburied shortly after their excavation in the 1890s and 1920s. Sites that are left exposed will inevitably require maintenance, treatments, stabilization, protective shelters, restoration and so on. Although such interventions are intended to prolong the life of the structures or features to which they are applied, the consequences are often a gradual replacement of original fabric, the addition of new materials, visual intrusions on the ancient landscape and generally a diminution of the authentic. The Decision-Making Process Whether a site, or part thereof, is to be left exposed after appropriate conservation and stabilization, be protected by sheltering or be reburied is the result of a planning and decision-making process. The assessment is critical for determining whether reburial (or another option) is the most appropriate and sustainable intervention for a particular site. Is it necessary for all parts of the site to remain visible in order to reveal this significance What are likely impacts of an intervention on the integrity and values of the site What is the best way to protect the site against these threats and causes of deterioration What are the financial and staffing implications for a particular intervention and its maintenance There are trade-offs or compromises that may need to be made but, as for all decision-making for cultural heritage, understanding what is most important about the site and to whom it is important are key to making an appropriate decision. The more significant and visible the site, and the greater the impact of reburial on it, the more the need for a transparent and thorough decision-making process. Some forms of reburial can be simple and straightforward-such as backfilling trenches on an excavated site- and require little in the way of a decision-making process. But even this type of reburial, when carried out on a large, long-abandoned site can be a formidable task, as evidenced at the ancient site of Merv in Turkmenistan, where huge archaeological trenches, exposed for nearly a century, are now being selectively backfilled. Advantages and Opportunities of Reburial Reburial is one of the most flexible strategies available to decision-makers since it allows for a range of temporal (long-term or temporary) and spatial (total or partial) options and is a reversible intervention. All these options contribute to the preservation of the site, but only long-term, total reburial can be considered as the optimal conservation measure. Total, long-term reburial is essentially reversing the process of excavation: if excavation is revelation and destruction, reburial is concealment and conservation. It is the act of concealment that lies at the heart of so many of the objections to reburial, as discussed below. Other degrees of reburial provide less protection, but are nevertheless important strategies for protecting sites. The larger the site, the greater the potential for conserving parts of it through reburial, while leaving others open for visitation and interpretation. Long-term, but partial, reburial provides protection within an overall scheme of site presentation. In an architectural complex, partial reburial of structures (leaving the upper parts of the walls exposed) allows the plan of a complex to remain legible while concealing its full excavated depth. To compensate for the resulting two-dimensionality of this type of reburial, selected rooms or struc- 442 Reading 46 demas tures may be left more fully exposed for purposes of interpretation. Partial reburial is most effective on one-period sites with walls preserved to a fairly uniform height, but it is also useful for stabilizing multi-level sites and subterranean features. It is thus an important strategy for protecting sites between excavation or study seasons or after the final excavation and study, pending the implementation of a conservation plan and opening to the public. A well-published example of a temporary reburiaI strategy was the Elizabethan Rose Theatre in London, whose remains were carefully reburied pending their presentation after construction of an office building. Another example of sheltering combined with reburial, in this instance partial reburial of mud brick remains to prevent slumping and erosion, is the well-known gate at Tel Dan in Israel. The distinction between temporary and permanent reburial may become blurred, if, for instance, it is a cyclical operation, as once practiced at the site of the Roman Villa at Woodchester (Gloucestershire), England, whose Orpheus mosaic was periodically unearthed to allow it to be viewed. Since 1880, when the mosaic was first re-excavated and consolidated, it was exposed for public viewing in 1890, 1926, 1935, 1951 and 1963, until its last exposure in 1973, at which time a replica of the mosaic was made and is now on permanent display. Yet even in this context reburial provides the opportunity and possibility in the future to reassess and reconsider decisions. Constraints to Reburial Real and Perceptual Objections As a conservation strategy, reburial of an archaeological site may be said to yield the highest dividends, but paradoxically it is the one that has found least acceptance among those responsible for excavating, conserving or managing archaeological remains. This lack of acceptance is reflected not only in practice but also in the international documents that provide guidance for the treatment of archaeological remains. Similarly, most national policies and most archaeologists are silent or overtly discouraging with respect to the recommendation and practice of reburial. They are also rarely expressed, existing at some subliminal level of the archaeological and public conscience. The practice of backfilling also appears to be regressive (excepting Britain and northern Europe where it is deemed routine). Statistics are, of course, nonexistent, but less formal data indicate that backfilling was more commonly practiced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries than within the last fifty years. The reasons for this may have little to do with a desire to preserve, and more to do with the need to dispose of the spoil heap on large-scale excavations or reinstate private land. Another motivation occurs in the context of mosaics conservation, where the focus shifted from backfilling to removal and transference to a museum. The legal issue is the most complex because it is inextricably linked with public perceptions. Fundamental to the legal issue-especially where private property is at stake-is that protection of cultural resources represents a land use constraint and may involve an expenditure of public funds. Another important justification, rarely stated explicitly, is the economic benefit to be derived from tourism (economic value). Unexcavated sites have the potential for yielding all or some of these values and benefits and are protected on that basis. In the light of these justifications for legal protection, the reburial of an excavated site presents obvious problems. Undoubtedly, the continued legal protection of a reburied site does represent a land use constraint, but does the site still have value to justify such protection In view of the prevalent neglect of many excavated sites, this perception is understandable; a weed-infested, unmaintained site certainly sends the message that there is little of value to be found there. The research value of an archaeological site can also be compromised through total excavation. This practice would find far less acceptance, however, among archaeologists today, who generally acknowledge that at minimum a site should be left with witness areas intact for future investigation. The exceptions are salvage excavation; small, single-entity sites; and sites for which no legal protection can be guaranteed. While the research and scientific values of an archaeological site may be reduced as a result of excavation, the site nevertheless retains other values and yields benefits deriving from public presentation that also justify continued legal protection. When an excavated site is reburied, however, its research value is seen to plummet even further, since its remains are no longer accessible for study and interpretation. Furthermore, a fully reburied site is seen to be incompatible with a policy of site presentation and the values that derive from it. Although there are means of compensating for such loss (discussed below), there are associated perceptual and legal issues that may be triggered by this act of reburial.
This structure and dopaminergic pathway is associated with feelings of pleasure antifungal grass treatment for lawn discount terbinafine 250 mg free shipping, and is a so-called "pleasure center" of the brain along with the nucleus accumbens and other limbic structures fungus gnats worms discount terbinafine 250mg mastercard. The pretectum receives input from retinal cells antifungal generic drugs cheap 250mg terbinafine, and is responsible for the pupillary light reflex fungus killing soap cheap 250mg terbinafine visa. The Mesencephalic Duct (aqueduct of Sylvius) xifaxan fungus cheap terbinafine 250 mg free shipping, connects the third and fourth ventricles zeasorb antifungal powder terbinafine 250mg otc. Term to describe a part of the brain that includes the Epithalamus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Subthalamus, Pituitary gland, Pineal gland, and the Third ventricle. The thalamus is a roughly football-shaped pair of structures at the top of the midbrain. All afferent somatosensory neurons, except olfaction (smell), synapse at thalamic nuclei prior to reaching the cerebral cortex. Efferent motor commands are processed by thalamic nuclei as well, prior to being acted on. The thalamus serves as a major "relay" station for sensory input into the brain. In addition to senses, the thalamus receives input from the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia as well as brain stem/cerebellum nuclei. The thalamus has been divided into five nuclear groups, based partly on a "Y"-shaped white matter tract through the thalamus called the internal medullary lamina. The "Y"-shaped white matter tract divides the thalamus into three broad areas, anterior, lateral, and medial. The fourth nuclear group is a series of nuclei that lie within the internal medullary lamina termed the intralaminar nuclei. The fifth thalamic nuclear group, a thin wall of neurons covering the lateral aspect of the thalamus, is termed the reticular nucleus. The nuclei of the thalamus are of three types: Relay, Association, and Nonspecific nuclei. Relay nuclei have well-defined afferent projections and relay this to functionally distinct cerebral cortex areas (see Table 3. These nuclei maintain a somatotropic organization from afferent to efferent projections. Association nuclei receive afferents (input projections) from the cerebral cortex and project back to association cortex [e. All thalamic nuclei have reciprocal projections to and from the reticular nuclei of the thalamus and associated cortical regions. Clinically, lesions to the thalamus are typically associated with marked neurologic impairment. Symptoms can include hemineglect (sensory and/or motor), hemi-anesthesia, apraxis, amnesia, and aphasias. Relay for basal gangalia to cerebral Visual input to primary visual cortex Auditory inputs to primary auditory cortex Behavioral orientation to visual (and other sensory) stimuli Relay loop of basal ganglia and cerebellar inputs to cortex. Efferent (output) Frontal cortex Function Cognition (attention/ memory), emotional functions. The aphasic symptoms tend to resolve after a few weeks, with poor expressive speech, reduced auditory comprehension (although reading is often preserved), intact repetition (and writing to dictation, but poor spontaneous writing), and anomia. Left thalamic lesions to the lateral nuclei often result in sensory loss without gross cognitive impairment (so-called "pure sensory stroke," see Chap. Nondominant (right) thalamic lesions typically result in pronounced hemineglect to sensory but also motor functions and a constructional apraxia (see Chap. The right thalamic lesion can also exhibit anosognosia and asomatognosia (lack of awareness of a part or whole body). Visual (spatial) memory impairments have been reported with unilateral nondominant thalamic infarcts. As noted above, damage to the anterior nucleus results in a dense amnestic syndrome, in which episodic memory is lost (anterograde amnesia), but semantic knowledge and implicit memory remains intact. Memory loss can also be present, and may or may not improve, depending upon the extent of the lesion. The hypothalamus, together with the pituitary and adrenal glands, play a major role in whole-body homeostasis and control and regulation of the autonomic nervous system. The hypothalamus is also involved in regulating sexual arousal as well as behaviors associated with fear and rage reactions. Secretions from hypothalamic neurons regulate a number of physiological functions (see Table 3. The pituitary gland is about the size of a pea and located inferior (underneath) of the hypothalamus. A small funnel-shaped fiber tract called the infundibulum or infundibular stalk connects the pituitary gland to the base of the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is referred to as "the master gland," because of its control of other endocrine organs. Hormones released from the pituitary gland regulate endocrine organs and processes throughout the body. Glucocorticoids are cholesterol-derived hormones which travel through the blood stream and interact with glucocorticoid receptors to influence metabolic and inflammatory processes. In addition, local hypothalamic interactions influence hormone release (see Table 3. Cortisol affects various organ systems to promote homeostasis but also provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Chronic stress has been shown in animals and some human experiments to result in chronically elevated cortisol levels. This dysfunction is thought to play a role in the development of symptoms in depressive and anxiety disorders (Tsigos and Chrousos 2002). The function of the pineal gland in humans is not entirely clear, but is thought to be associated with the regulation of the circadian rhythm. It is connected to the lateral ventricles via the foramin of Monroe (Interventricular Foramin) and with the fourth ventricle via the aquaduct of Sylvius (cerebral aqueduct). Embryonic term that includes the following structures of the brain: Rhinencephalon, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Basal ganglia, Neocortex, and the Lateral ventricles. The Rhinencephalon (also called piriform, pyriform, or olfactory cortex) in humans is responsible for olfaction and includes the olfactory nerve, bulb, stria and tract and a portion of the amygdala. Almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep within the medial temporal lobes and just anterior to the hippocampi (see also. The Amygdala receives input from somatosensory areas as well as limbic structures, and is thought to be primarily involved in processing emotional states and associates memory with emotional functioning. The hippocampi structures make up part of the mesial temporal lobes, and are located beneath the cortical surface of the parahippocampal gyrus and just posterior to the amygdala. The hippocampus takes the form of an elongated tube thicker at its anterior end and becoming thin at its posterior (tail) end. The hippocampus plays a significant role in long-term memory formation and spatial navigation (see Sect. In general, the basal ganglia reflects a system of control and mediation of motor function between the cortex, thalamus and cerebellum. The major input to the basal ganglia is the striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens). Traditionally, the basal ganglia functional processes is presented as consisting of two pathways, a "direct" and "indirect" pathway. While overly simplistic, the traditional perspective is provided here as a foundation (see Chap. The "direct" pathway serves to increase (excite) the activity of the thalamus, thereby increasing cortical motor activity. Alternatively, the "indirect" pathway, which serves to decrease activity of the thalamus, inhibits cortex activity (indirect inhibits). Each component or channel maintains a somatotropic organization through the basal ganglia along with input and output cortices. The orbitofrontal component is similar to the dorsolateral, except the input fibers are mostly from the lateral orbitofrontal region as well as some from the anterior temporal lobes. The anterior cingulate/limbic channel receives inputs from the anterior cingulate and temporal cortices (amygdala and hippocampus), sending fibers to the nucleus accumbens and ventral caudate nucleus. This information is then projected to the anterior cingulate and orbital frontal cortex. Term defining the outermost layers (6, see below) of neurons and underlying white matter. The neocortex is the newest part of the nervous system to develop, and serves as the center of all higher mental functions such as speech and language, declarative memory (see Chap. The neocortex is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres by the longitudinal cerebral fissure. Information is passed directly between the two hemispheres via a massive collection of axons called the corpus callosum. The embryologic development of the cerebral hemispheres results in a wrinkled or folded appearance. The convex portions of the cerebral cortex are referred to as gyri, and the concave portions are referred to as sulci. While there are no two brains that have the exact same pattern of gyri and sulci, there are some gyri and sulci that are consistently maintained (central sulcus, Sylvian fissure), and form the basis for named landmarks that are used to divide the cerebral cortex into the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The region between the frontal and temporal operculum (a series of gyri and sulci lying underneath the frontal and temporal lobes) is identified as the insular cortex or lobe. Each hemisphere of the neocortex is divided into four traditional "lobes": Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. The insular region (or cortex) is cerebral cortex underlying the frontal and temporal operculum (making the "floor" of the sylvian fissure), and is sometimes referred to as a "fifth" lobe of the human brain (see below). The inferior portion of the parietal cortex is divided from the temporal cortex by the posterior portion of the sylvian fissure. There are a several common mechanisms of increased intracranial pressure, including (1) space occupying lesion, (2) generalized brain swelling, (3) increased venous pressure. The aspects of increased intracranial pressure due to the first three are reviewed in Chaps. There are two general types of hydrocephalus, (1) communicating and (2) noncommunicating (obstructive) hydrocephalus. Common areas for obstructed flow is the foramen of Monro (between lateral and 3rd ventricle), the aqueduct of Sylvias (between 3rd and 4th ventricles) or the result of fibrosing meningitis due to infection or subarachnoid hemorrhage (see also Chap. There are 33 vertebrae which make up the spinal column, and are divided into 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 fused sacral and 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae. The spinal cord begins at the base of the skull where it is the continuation of the medulla oblongata. The nerve roots derived from the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord make up the spinal sensory nerve roots. The nerve roots derived from the ventral aspect of the spinal cord make up the spinal motor nerve roots. The body of the spinal cord terminates at lower border of the first lumbar vertebrae, L1, into the conus medularis. The conus medularis terminates as the cauda equina, a filamentous structure which gives rise to the lumbar, sacral and cocygeal spinal nerve roots. The spinal cord itself generally ends around the L1 vertebral body, so one needs to distinguish between spinal cord level (such as neurons affecting L3 nerve root, and the vertebral level, as this dissociation occurs with development with elongation of the spine relative to the spinal cord. Unlike the brain with gray matter (neurons) on the exterior and white matter on the interior, the organization of the spinal cord has gray matter (neurons) on the interior and white matter (axons) on the periphery. The major afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) pathways are discussed in detail below. For now, we direct the reader to appreciate that the sensory pathways are generally in the dorsal (posterior) aspect of the spinal cord while the motor afferents are generally in the ventral (anterior) area of the spinal cord. The sensory and motor components incorporate what is termed the autonomic nervous system. Ventral nerve roots carry efferent motor information from the upper motor neurons. Autonomic Nervous System the autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system arises from thoracic and lumbar spinal levels and releases norepinephrine onto end organs. The parasympathetic nervous system is the "counterpart" to the sympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system is associated with "rest and digest" functions, such as increasing gastric secretions and peristalsis, slowing heart rate, and decreasing pupil size. While a comprehensive description of the actions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system is beyond the scope of this chapter. Cerebrovascular System Overview the blood supply to the brain is provided by two paired sets of arteries, forming an anterior and posterior circulatory system to the brain. The vertebral artery is a branch of the subclavian artery which ascends through the foramina of the transverse processes of the upper six cervical vertebrae, winds behind the articular process of C1 and enters the skull through the foramen magnum. The paired vertebral arteries traverse across the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata and join at the pontomedullary junction (base of the pons) to form the single basilar artery. The posterior spinal arteries (not shown) provides blood supply to the posterior 1/3 of the spinal cord (one side of the cord for each posterior spinal artery). The anterior spinal artery runs along the ventral midline of the spinal cord and supplies the anterior 2/3 of the spinal cord. The Circle of Willis is a ring of blood vessels surrounding the optic chiasm and pituitary stalk. The anterior communicating artery connects the right and left anterior cerebral arteries.
The Committee shall transmit to the Depositary a summary of its findings of fact antifungal and hydrocortisone cream cheap terbinafine 250mg overnight delivery, incorporating all views and information presented to the Committee during its proceedings fungus between breasts cheap 250 mg terbinafine mastercard. Any State Party to this Convention which has reason to believe that any other State Party is acting in breach of obligations deriving from the provisions of the Convention may lodge a complaint with the Security Council of the United Nations antifungal essential oils for toenails discount terbinafine 250mg free shipping. Such a complaint should include all relevant information as well as all possible evidence supporting its validity fungus bugs purchase 250mg terbinafine with amex. Each State Party to this Convention undertakes to co-operate in carrying out any investigation which the Security Council may initiate antifungal kills hiv cheap terbinafine 250mg fast delivery, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations fungus foot soak discount 250mg terbinafine, on the basis of the complaint received by the Council. The Security Council shall inform the States Parties of the results of the investigation. Each State Party to this Convention undertakes to provide or support assistance, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, to any State Party which so requests, if the Security Council decides that such Party has been harmed or is likely to be harmed as a result of violation of the Convention. The text of any proposed amendment shall be submitted to the Depositary, who shall promptly circulate it to all States Parties. An amendment shall enter into force for all States Parties to this Convention which have accepted it, upon the deposit with the Depositary of instruments of acceptance by a majority of States Parties. Five years after the entry into force of this Convention, a conference of the States Parties to the Convention shall be convened by the Depositary at Geneva, Switzerland. The conference shall review the operation of the Convention with a view to ensuring that its purposes and provisions are being realized, and shall in particular examine the effectiveness of the provisions of paragraph 1 of article I in eliminating the dangers of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques. At intervals of not less than five years thereafter, a majority of the States Parties to this Convention may obtain, by submitting a proposal to this effect to the Depositary, the convening of a conference with the same objectives. If no conference has been convened pursuant to paragraph 2 of this article within ten years following the conclusion of a previous conference, the Depositary shall solicit the views of all States Parties to this Convention, concerning the convening of such a conference. If one third or ten of the States Parties, whichever number is less, respond affirmatively, the Depositary shall take immediate steps to convene the conference. Any State which does not sign the Convention before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time. Instruments of ratification or accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. This Convention shall enter into force upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by twenty Governments in accordance with paragraph 2 of this article. For those States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited after the entry into force of this Convention, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession. The Depositary shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification or accession and the date of the entry into force of this Convention and of any amendments thereto, as well as of the receipt of other notices. This Convention shall be registered by the Depositary in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations. In witness whereof, the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed this Convention, opened for signature at Geneva on the eighteenth day of May, one thousand nine hundred and seventy-seven. The Consultative Committee of Experts shall undertake to make appropriate findings of fact and provide expert views relevant to any problem raised pursuant to paragraph 1 of article V of this Convention by the State Party requesting the convening of the Committee. The work of the Consultative Committee of Experts shall be organized in such a way as to permit it to perform the functions set forth in paragraph 1 of this annex. The Committee shall decide procedural questions relative to the organization of its work, where possible by consensus, but otherwise by a majority of those present and voting. The Depositary or his representative shall serve as the Chairman of the Committee. Each State Party to this Convention undertakes never under any circumstances: (a) To develop, produce, otherwise acquire, stockpile or retain chemical weapons, or transfer, directly or indirectly, chemical weapons to anyone; (b) To use chemical weapons; (c) To engage in any military preparations to use chemical weapons; (d) To assist, encourage or induce, in any way, anyone to engage in any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention. Each State Party undertakes to destroy chemical weapons it owns or possesses, or that are located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, in accordance with the provisions of this Convention. Each State Party undertakes to destroy all chemical weapons it abandoned on the territory of another State Party, in accordance with the provisions of this Convention. Each State Party undertakes to destroy any chemical weapons production facilities it owns or possesses, or that are located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, in accordance with the provisions of this Convention. Each State Party undertakes not to use riot control agents as a method of warfare. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere. It shall be deemed to be equal to the nameplate capacity or, if the nameplate capacity is not available, to the design capacity. The nameplate capacity is the product output under conditions optimized for maximum quantity for the production facility, as demonstrated by one or more testruns. Disarmament and non-proliferation With respect to chemical weapons production facilities: (i) (ii) Declare whether it has or has had any chemical weapons production facility under its ownership or possession, or that is or has been located in any place under its jurisdiction or control at any time since 1 January 1946; Specify any chemical weapons production facility it has or has had under its ownership or possession or that is or has been located in any place under its jurisdiction or control at any time since 1 January 1946, in accordance with Part V, paragraph 1, of the Verification Annex, except for those facilities referred to in sub-subparagraph (iii); Report any chemical weapons production facility on its territory that another State has or has had under its ownership and possession and that is or has been located in any place under the jurisdiction or control of another State at any time since 1 January 1946, in accordance with Part V, paragraph 2, of the Verification Annex; Declare whether it has transferred or received, directly or indirectly, any equipment for the production of chemical weapons since 1 January 1946 and specify the transfer or receipt of such equipment, in accordance with Part V, paragraphs 3 to 5, of the Verification Annex; Provide its general plan for destruction of any chemical weapons production facility it owns or possesses, or that is located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, in accordance with Part V, paragraph 6, of the Verification Annex; Specify actions to be taken for closure of any chemical weapons production facility it owns or possesses, or that is located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, in accordance with Part V, paragraph 1 (i), of the Verification Annex; Provide its general plan for any temporary conversion of any chemical weapons production facility it owns or possesses, or that is located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, into a chemical weapons destruction facility, in accordance with Part V, paragraph 7, of the Verification Annex; (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (d) With respect to other facilities: Specify the precise location, nature and general scope of activities of any facility or establishment under its ownership or possession, or located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, and that has been designed, constructed or used since 1 January 1946 primarily for development of chemical weapons. This declaration shall be updated not later than 30 days after any change becomes effective. Thereafter, each State Party shall not remove any of these chemical weapons, except to a chemical weapons destruction facility. It shall provide access to such chemical weapons, for the purpose of systematic on-site verification. Each State Party shall provide access to any chemical weapons destruction facilities and their storage areas, that it owns or possesses, or that are located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, for the purpose of systematic verification through on-site inspection and monitoring with on-site instruments. Each State Party shall destroy all chemical weapons specified in paragraph 1 pursuant to the Verification Annex and in accordance with the agreed rate and sequence of destruction (hereinafter referred to as "order of destruction"). Such destruction shall begin not later than two years after this Convention enters into force for it and shall finish not later than 10 years after entry into force of this Convention. A State Party is not precluded from destroying such chemical weapons at a faster rate. If a State ratifies or accedes to this Convention after the 10-year period for destruction set forth in paragraph 6, it shall destroy chemical weapons specified in paragraph 1 as soon as possible. The order of destruction and procedures for stringent verification for such a State Party shall be determined by the Executive Council. Each State Party, during transportation, sampling, storage and destruction of chemical weapons, shall assign the highest priority to ensuring the safety of people and to protecting the environment. Each State Party shall transport, sample, store and destroy chemical weapons in accordance with its national standards for safety and emissions. Any State Party which has on its territory chemical weapons that are owned or possessed by another State, or that are located in any place under the jurisdiction or control of another State, shall make the fullest efforts to ensure that these chemical weapons are removed from its territory not later than one year after this Convention enters into force for it. If they are not removed within one year, the State Party may request the Organization and other States Parties to provide assistance in the destruction of these chemical weapons. Each State Party undertakes to cooperate with other States Parties that request information or assistance on a bilateral basis or through the Technical Secretariat regarding methods and technologies for the safe and efficient destruction of chemical weapons. Disarmament and non-proliferation eral or multilateral agreements on verification of chemical weapons storage and their destruction among States Parties. If the Executive Council takes a decision pursuant to paragraph 13, the Organization shall have the right to monitor the implementation of the bilateral or multilateral agreement. Each State Party shall meet the costs of destruction of chemical weapons it is obliged to destroy. It shall also meet the costs of verification of storage and destruction of these chemical weapons unless the Executive Council decides otherwise. The provisions of this Article and the detailed procedures for its implementation shall apply to any and all chemical weapons production facilities owned or possessed by a State Party, or that are located in any place under its jurisdiction or control. Detailed procedures for the implementation of this Article are set forth in the Verification Annex. All chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1 shall be subject to systematic verification through on-site inspection and monitoring with on-site instruments in accordance with Part V of the Verification Annex. Each State Party shall cease immediately all activity at chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1, except activity required for closure. No State Party shall construct any new chemical weapons production facilities or modify any existing facilities for the purpose of chemical weapons production or for any other activity prohibited under this Convention. Each State Party shall: (a) Close, not later than 90 days after this Convention enters into force for it, all chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1, in accordance with Part V of the Verification Annex, and give notice thereof; and (b) Provide access to chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1, subsequent to closure, for the purpose of systematic verification through on-site inspection and monitoring with on-site instruments in order to ensure that the facility remains closed and is subsequently destroyed. Each State Party shall destroy all chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1 and related facilities and equipment, pursuant to the Verification Annex and in accordance with an agreed rate and sequence of destruction (hereinafter referred to as "order of destruction"). Such destruction shall begin not later than one year after this Convention enters into force for it, and shall finish not later than 10 years after entry into force of this Convention. Each State Party shall: (a) Submit detailed plans for destruction of chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1, not later than 180 days before the destruction of each facility begins; (b) Submit declarations annually regarding the implementation of its plans for the destruction of all chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1, not later than 90 days after the end of each annual destruction period; and (c) Certify, not later than 30 days after the destruction process has been completed, that all chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1 have been destroyed. If a State ratifies or accedes to this Convention after the 10-year period for destruction set forth in paragraph 8, it shall destroy chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1 as soon as possible. Each State Party, during the destruction of chemical weapons production facilities, shall assign the highest priority to ensuring the safety of people and to protecting the environment. Each State Party shall destroy chemical weapons production facilities in accordance with its national standards for safety and emissions. Chemical weapons production facilities specified in paragraph 1 may be temporarily converted for destruction of chemical weapons in accordance with Part V, paragraphs 18 to 25, of the Verification Annex. Such a converted facility must be destroyed as soon as it is no longer in use for destruction of chemical weapons but, in any case, not later than 10 years after entry into force of this Convention. A State Party may request, in exceptional cases of compelling need, permission to use a chemical weapons production facility specified in paragraph 1 for purposes not prohibited under this Convention. Upon the recommendation of the Executive Council, the Conference of the States Parties shall decide whether or not to approve the request and shall establish the conditions upon which approval is contingent in accordance with Part V, Section D, of the Verification Annex. The chemical weapons production facility shall be converted in such a manner that the converted facility is not more capable of being reconverted into a chemical weapons production facility than any other facility used for industrial, agricultural, research, medical, pharmaceutical or other peaceful purposes not involving chemicals listed in Schedule 1. All converted facilities shall be subject to systematic verification through on-site inspection and monitoring with on-site instruments in accordance with Part V, Section D, of the Verification Annex. In carrying out verification activities pursuant to this Article and Part V of the Verification Annex, the Organization shall consider measures to avoid unnecessary duplication of bilateral or multilateral agreements on verification of chemical weapons production facilities and their destruction among States Parties. Disarmament and non-proliferation (c) Parties to the bilateral or multilateral agreement keep the Organization fully informed about their verification activities. If the Executive Council takes a decision pursuant to paragraph 16, the Organization shall have the right to monitor the implementation of the bilateral or multilateral agreement. Each State Party shall meet the costs of destruction of chemical weapons production facilities it is obliged to destroy. It shall also meet the costs of verification under this Article unless the Executive Council decides otherwise. Each State Party has the right, subject to the provisions of this Convention, to develop, produce, otherwise acquire, retain, transfer and use toxic chemicals and their precursors for purposes not prohibited under this Convention. Each State Party shall adopt the necessary measures to ensure that toxic chemicals and their precursors are only developed, produced, otherwise acquired, retained, transferred, or used within its territory or in any other place under its jurisdiction or control for purposes not prohibited under this Convention. To this end, and in order to verify that activities are in accordance with obligations under this Convention, each State Party shall subject toxic chemicals and their precursors listed in Schedules 1, 2 and 3 of the Annex on Chemicals, facilities related to such chemicals, and other facilities as specified in the Verification Annex, that are located on its territory or in any other place under its jurisdiction or control, to verification measures as provided in the Verification Annex. Not later than 30 days after this Convention enters into force for it, each State Party shall make an initial declaration on relevant chemicals and facilities in accordance with the Verification Annex. Each State Party shall make annual declarations regarding the relevant chemicals and facilities in accordance with the Verification Annex. For the purpose of on-site verification, each State Party shall grant to the inspectors access to facilities as required in the Verification Annex. The provisions of this Article shall be implemented in a manner which avoids hampering the economic or technological development of States Parties, and international cooperation in the field of chemical activities for purposes not prohibited under this Convention including the international exchange of scientific and technical information and chemicals and equipment for the production, processing or use of chemicals for purposes not prohibited under this Convention. Each State Party shall, in accordance with its constitutional processes, adopt the necessary measures to implement its obligations under this Convention. In particular, it shall: (a) Prohibit natural and legal persons anywhere on its territory or in any other place under its jurisdiction as recognized by international law from undertaking any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention, including enacting penal legislation with respect to such activity; (b) Not permit in any place under its control any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention; and (c) Extend its penal legislation enacted under subparagraph (a) to any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention undertaken anywhere by natural persons, possessing its nationality, in conformity with international law. Each State Party shall cooperate with other States Parties and afford the appropriate form of legal assistance to facilitate the implementation of the obligations under paragraph 1. Each State Party, during the implementation of its obligations under this Convention, shall assign the highest priority to ensuring the safety of people and to protecting the environment, and shall cooperate as appropriate with other States Parties in this regard. In order to fulfil its obligations under this Convention, each State Party shall designate or establish a National Authority to serve as the national focal point for effective liaison with the Organization and other States Parties. Each State Party shall notify the Organization of its National Authority at the time that this Convention enters into force for it. Each State Party shall inform the Organization of the legislative and administrative measures taken to implement this Convention. Each State Party shall treat as confidential and afford special handling to information and data that it receives in confidence from the Organization in connection with the implementation of this Convention. It shall treat such information and data exclusively in connection with its rights and obligations under this Convention and in accordance with the provisions set forth in the Confidentiality Annex. Each State Party undertakes to cooperate with the Organization in the exercise of all its functions and in particular to provide assistance to the Technical Secretariat. The States Parties to this Convention hereby establish the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to achieve the object and purpose of this Convention, to ensure the implementation of its provisions, including those for international verification of compliance with it, and to provide a forum for consultation and cooperation among States Parties. The seat of the Headquarters of the Organization shall be the Hague, Kingdom of the Netherlands. There are hereby established as the organs of the Organization: the Conference of the States Parties, the Executive Council, and the Technical Secretariat. The Organization shall conduct its verification activities provided for under this Convention in the least intrusive manner possible consistent with the timely and efficient accomplishment of their objectives. It shall request only the information and data necessary to fulfil its responsibilities under this Convention. It shall take every precaution to protect the confidentiality of information on civil and military activities and facilities coming to its knowledge in the implementation of this Convention and, in particular, shall abide by the provisions set forth in the Confidentiality Annex. In undertaking its verification activities the Organization shall consider measures to make use of advances in science and technology. Financial contributions of States Parties to the Preparatory Commission shall be deducted in an appropriate way from their contributions to the regular budget. The budget of the Organization shall comprise two separate chapters, one relating to administrative and other costs, and one relating to verification costs.
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